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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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https://archive.org/details/gaininnitrogenfr3950fred 


Research  Bulletin  39 


October,  1916 


The  Gain  in  Nitrogen  from  Growth  of 
Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


E.  B.  FRED  and  E.  J.  GRAUL 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction 3 

Acid  soils  of  Wisconsin  and  their  relation  to  the  growth  of  leguncees  3 
Purpose  of  this  study 4 

Historical 5 

Previous  investigations 5 

Methods  of  study 7 

Results  of  pot  experiments  of  1914 9 • 

The  effect  of  treatment  on  the  yield  of  alfalfa  and  soy  beans  on 

Colby  silt  loam 10 

The  effect  of  treatment  on  the  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa  and  soy 
beans 14 

Results  of  pot  experiments  of  1915 16 

The  effect  of  treatment  on  the  yield  of  alfalfa  on  Colby  silt  loam, 
alfalfa  on  Plainfield  sand,  clover  on  Colby  silt  loam,  and  clover 

on  sand 17 

The  effect  of  treatment  on  the  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa  on  Colby, 
alfalfa  on  sand,  clover  on  Colby,  and  clover  on  sand 25 

Results  of  field  experiments  of  1915 31 

Effect  of  treatment  on  the  nitrogen  balance 33 

Source  of  nitrogen 36 

Summary 37 

Literature 41 


l\o  - ?f\-50 

C-op  ■ 


f) 


The  Gain  in  Nitrogen  from  the  Growth  of 


There  are  millions  of  acres  of  land  covering  two-thirds  of 
Wisconsin  which  are  not  only  acid  but  also  deficient  in  nitro- 
gen and  organic  matter. 

Frequently  soil  of  this  character  will  not  grow  profitable 
crops  unless  the  deficiencies  are  met  in  some  way.  Soil  acid- 
ity can  easily  be  remedied  by  the  use  of  lime. 

Leguminous  plants  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  soy  beans 
are  used  to  maintain  a supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  In  a 
favorable  environment,  legumes  through  the  work  of  certain 
bacteria  will  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  “fix”  or  place  it 
in  the  soil  where  it  can  be  used  as  plant  food.  In  almost  any 
system  of  farming  it  is  necessary  to  give  a leguminous  crop 
an  important  place  in  the  crop  rotation. 

Three  conditions  which  affect  the  nitrogen-fixing  power  of 
the  legumes  are:  the  presence  of  the  proper  bacteria  in  the 
soil,  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  soluble  nitrogen,  and 
the  acidity  of  the  soil. 

The  presence  of  the  proper  bacteria  in  the  soil  can  be 
secured  by  inoculation  with  soil  or  by  means  of  artificial 
cultures.  The  second  factor  does  not  play  an  important 
part  under  field  conditions  because  large  amounts  of  soluble 
nitrogen  rarely  occur.  To  the  farmer  the  third  factor  is  a 
most  important  one,  much  data  having  been  collected  which 
shows  that  an  acid  reaction  of  the  soil  is  injurious  to  crop 


It  is  a common  experience  that  some  legumes  do  not  thrive 
very  well  in  acid  soils  and  as  a result  may  not  be  very  efficient 
in  restoring  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Fortunately,  there  are  cer- 
tain cultivated  legumes  which  do  well  in  acid  soils.  Al- 
though these  plants  often  develop  normally,  showing  an 
abundant  growth  and  a large  root  system  with  numerous 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils* 


growth. 


*The  authors  a 
many  helpful  su 
the  manuscript. 


509865 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


nodules,  information  regarding  their  nitrogen-fixing  powers 
is  somewhat  meager. 

Since  medium  red  clover,  alfalfa,  and  soy  beans  are  better 
forage  crops  than  most  of  the  legumes  which  will  grow  on 


FIG.  L— extent  of  ACID  SOILS  IN  WISCONSIN 

'I'hc  silt  and  clay  loams  of  the  North  Central  area  are  very  generally  acid.  The 
sandy  soils  are  universally  acid.  Aciditv  has  developed  in  patches  in  the  soils  on 
limestone.  ' 


acid  soils,  it  is  desirable  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the  soil  so 
that  they  can  be  grown.  When  the  cost  of  lime,  which  is 
used  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the  soil,  is  too  great,  legumes 
which  will  grow  on  acid  soils  should  be  used. 

Since  many  of  the  legumes  do  not  grow  under  very  acid 
conditions,  the  question  of  partial  neutralization  of  the  soil 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


5 


acidity  becomes  important.  Again,  where  a high  degree  of 
acidity  exists  over  a large  portion  of  the  farmer’s  land,  the 
amount  of  land  which  can  be  used  for  the  growing  of  alfalfa 
in  rotation  presents  another  problem. 

A constantly  increasing  demand  for  greater  crop  produc- 
tion makes  it  important  to  study  methods  of  increasing  the 
growth  of  legumes.  The  application  of  limestone  to  neutral- 
ize soil  acidity  offers  a possible  solution.  Accordingly 
experiments  were  planned,  which  had  as  their  chief  purpose 
a study  of  the  growth  and  nitrogen-fixing  power  of  acid- 
tolerant  and  acid-sensitive  legumes,  grown  on  acid  soil.  The 
three  most  promising  leguminous  crops  for  Wisconsin,  common 
red  clover,  alfalfa,  and  soy  beans,  were  selected  for  this 
investigation.  It  was  arranged  to  measure  the  value  of 
these  crops  for  two  widely  different  types  of  acid  soil.  This 
study  included  the  influence  on  plant  growth  of  certain  factors 
other  than  soil  type,  i.  e.,  inoculation  and  limestone.  The 
following  points  were  considered:  First,  the  gain  in  nitrogen 
and  plant  growth  from  inoculation;  second,  the  relative 
benefit  derived  from  large  and  small  applications  of  lime- 
stone, both  inoculated  and  uninoculated;  third,  the  nitrogen 
balance  in  an  acid  soil  before  and  after  growing  a leguminous 
crop,  provided  the  aerial  crop  was  removed  and  the  roots 
left  in  the  soil. 

Although  the  experiments  have  been  made  both  in  the 
glass  house  and  in  the  field,  the  greater  portion  of  the  data 
reported  herewith  was  obtained  from  pot  experiments.  Since 
the  results  of  field  tests  for  one  season  agree  very  closely 
with  those  obtained  in  the  glass  house,  it  was  deemed  best 
to  publish  the  data  of  these  experiments.  This  is  not  a 
completed  study  but  a progress  report  of  the  results  up  to 
the  present  time. 

Historical  Re\iew 

A demonstration  of  the  ability  of  inoculated  legumes  to 
add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  has  been  shown  by  the  results  of 
various  investigators.  Since  the  literature  on  this  subject  is 
extensive,  it  is  proposed  at  this  time  to  give  only  a brief 
review  of  certain  investigations. 

Atwater  and  Woods  (3)  of  the  Connecticut  Station  were 
among  the  first  in  America  to  show  the  beneficial  effect  of 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


inoculation  on  growth  and  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa  and. 
peas.  They  found,  when  alfalfa  was  grown  on  sand  supplied 
with  nutrient  solutions,  a gain  in  nitrogen  resulted.  The 
increase  was  proportional  to  the  number  of  nodules  on  the 
roots.  The  results  obtained  with  alfalfa  were  substantiated 
with  peas  grown  under  similar  cultural  conditions. 

Numerous  experiments  carried  on  at  the  Rothamsted 
Experiment  Station  (21)  gave  evidence  that  legumes  had 
the  ability,  when  properly  inoculated,  to  increase  the  nitrogen 
content  of  the  soil.  A field  where  six  crops  of  wheat  had 
been  grown  previously  was  chosen  and  divided  into  two 
subfields.  On  one  field  barley  was  seeded,  on  the  other 
clover.  After  the  crops  were  harvested,  the  soil  from  each 
field  was  analyzed  for  total  nitrogen.  The  clover  field  to  a 
depth  of  nine  inches  contained  0.156  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
the  soil  from  the  barley  field  contained  0.142  per  cent.  Alany 
similar  experiments  are  on  record. 

The  beneficial  effect  of  inoculation  was  shown  by  Duggar 

(4)  who  found  that  Canada  field  peas,  crimson  clover,  lu- 
pines, vetches,  and  other  legumes  were  benefited  by  the 
treatment.  In  some  cases,  an  increase  in  crop  growth  of 
more  than  300  per  cent  was  secured.  This  investigator 

(5)  carried  on  numerous  field  tests  and  found  that  vetch 
was  greatly  benefited  by  inoculation.  He  found  also  that 
less  than  one-fifth  of  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  plant  is  in  the 
roots  and  short  stubble. 

In  a report  of  pot  and  field  experiments,  Hopkins  (9) 
found  a fixation  of  over  35  pounds  of  atmospheric  nitrogen 
per  acre  due  to  inoculation.  The  effect  of  lime  and  other 
fertilizers  was  studied  both  under  greenhouse  and  under 
field  conditions.  Beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  lime  were 
reported  in  all  cases. 

Nobbe  and  Richter  (15)  found  that  inoculation  increased 
the  percentage  and  total  nitrogen  in  tops  of  Vicia  Villosa, 
as  well  as  the  dry  weight  of  the  crop.  They  noted  that  inocu- 
lated plants  contained  4.29  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  uninocu- 
lated plants  only  1.85  per  cent.  Studies  by  these  same 
investigators  on  the  effect  of  nitrates  on  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  fixed  from  the  atmosphere  gave  evidence  that  where 
soluble  nitrogen  is  present  in  considerable  quantity,  the  per- 
centage fixed  from  air  may  be  greatly  reduced. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


7 


According  to  Smith  and  Robison  (19)  inoculation  greatly 
increases  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  parts  above  ground 
of  soy  beans  and  cowpeas.  Inoculated  beans,  for  example, 
not  only  gave  more  nitrogen  in  stems  and  leaves,  but  also 
a decided  gain  in  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  seeds.  In 
many  cases,  inoculation  failed  to  show  any  marked  increase 
in  yield,  but  the  harvest  was  much  richer  in  nitrogen.  This 
work  was  extended  by  Shutt  (17)  who  found  that  inoculation 
increased  the  protein  content  of  alfalfa  hay.  He  reports 
that  clover  grown  on  a sandy  loam  soil  for  six  consecutive 
years  increased  the  nitrogen  content  of  that  soil  375  pounds 
per  acre. 

According  to  Alway  (1)  inoculation  nearly  doubles  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  crop.  Aside  from  the  increase 
in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen,  he  found  that  the  roots  and 
stems  are  from  three  to  fifty  times  as  heavy  as  those  from 
the  uninoculated  plants. 

Greenhouse  experiments  carried  on  by  Hartwell  and  Pem- 
ber  (8)  at  the  Rhode  Island  Station  resulted  in  a fixation  of 
one  ton  of  nitrogen  per  acre  from  legumes  grown  successively 
for  a period  of  five  years. 

Arny  and  Thatcher  (2)  of  the  Minnesota  Station  have 
submitted  data  concerning  the  effect  of  inoculation  on  al- 
falfa. They  report  not  only  an  increase  in  yield  from  ino- 
culation, but  also  a decided  increase  in  percentage  of  nitrogen. 
It  appears  that  the  benefit  derived  from  inoculation  was 
much  greater  in  the  tops  than  in  the  roots. 

According  to  Morse  (14)  of  the  IMassachusetts  Experiment 
Station,  liming  caused  an  increase  in  the  size  of  clover  plants 
and  also  an  increase  in  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Analysis 
of  plant  tissue  failed  to  show  any  effect  of  the  lime  on  the 
percentage  of  ash,  iron  oxide,  and  calcium  oxide. 

The  value  of  legumes  as  a source  of  nitrogen  has  been 
reported  by  Lipman  and  Blair  (13).  I*n  a four-year  rotation 
on  various  soils  they  found  that  the  growth  of  legumes  as 
green  manures  results  in  an  average  gain  per  acre  of  more 
than  54  pounds  of  nitrogen  annually. 

Experimental  Methods 

This  paper  includes  a report  of  results  obtained  from  pot 
experiments  with  alfalfa,  red  clover,  and  soy  beans  on  acid 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


soils.  Similar  experiments  under  field  conditions  are  now 
in  progress. 

Soil 

Two  types  of  acid  soil  were  used  for  this  work — namely, 
Colby  silt  loam  and  Plainfield  sand.  The  Colby  silt  loam 
was  collected  from  the  sub-station  at  Marshfield;  the  Plain- 
field  sand  from  the  experiment  field  at  Sparta.  These  soils 
were  shipped  to  the  laboratory  where  they  were  passed 
through  a four-millimeter  sieve  and  mixed  thoroughly, 
Samples  were  drawn  for  moisture  content,  active  acidity, 
and  total  nitrogen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  chemical  composition 
of  several  samples  of  these  soils: 


Soil  P.  N.  K.  Organic 

matter 

Colby  silt  loam .072  .198  1.51  3.91 

Plainfield  Sparta  sand .032  .09  .93  1.67 


Methods 

In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  calcium  carbonate 
necessary  to  neutralize  the  acidity  of  the  soils,  the  Veitch 
and  Truog  methods  were  used. 

The  total  nitrogen  content  of  the  tissue  was  determined  by 
the  Kjeldahl  method,  digesting  for  four  hours  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  potassium  sulphate  and  copper  sulphate.  The 
figures  of  the  following  tables  represent  the  average  of  three 
analyses. 

After  all  crops  were  harvested  and  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa 
plants  removed,  the  soil  was  mixed  thoroughly.  One-half 
kilogram  samples  were  drawn,  allowed  to  dry  and  prepared 
for  analysis.  In  the  presence  of  appreciable  amounts  of 
nitrate  nitrogen,  the  modified  method  for  total  nitrogen  to 
include  nitrates  was  followed.  -For  each  soil  four  parallel 
analyses  were  made. 

Pounds  per  acre. — It  was  assumed  that  one  gram,  of 
tissue  or  of  nitrogen  per  jar  of  10 J inches  in  diameter  corres- 
ponds to  one  pound  per  square  rod  or  to  160  pounds  per 
acre  (9). 

In  the  1911  experiments,  the  lime  requirement  was  deter- 
mined by  the  Veitch  method.  In  all  subsequent  work,  it 
was  determined  by  the  Truog  method.  A series  of  earthen- 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


9 


ware  jars,  each  10|  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  deep, 
were  filled  with  a definite  amount  of  the  various  soils.  The 
jars  were  kept  in  a special  greenhouse  in  order  to  avoid 
contamination.  A general  plan  of  all  of  the  experiments  is 
given  below. 


PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENTS 


Pot  No. 

Treatment 

1 

None 

Uninoculated 

2 

None 

Uninoculated 

3 

None 

Inoculated 

4 

None 

Inoculated 

5 

CaCOa  one-half* 

Uninoculated 

6 

CaCOs  one-half 

Uninoculated 

7 

CaCOs  one-half 

Inoculated 

8 

CaCOs  one-half 

Inoculated 

9 

CaCOs  full 

Uninoculated 

10 

CaCOs  full 

Uninoculated 

11 

CaCOs  full 

Inoculated 

12 

CaCOs  full 

\ 

Inoculated 

*By  “one-half”  is  meant  the  amount  of  lime  carbonate  necessary  to  neutralize 
one-half  of  the  acidity. 


Before  planting,  all  seeds  were  washed  in  mercuric  chlor- 
ide and  rinsed  in  sterile  water.  The  seeds  in  one-half  of  the 
pots  were  inoculated  with  a pure  culture  of  alfalfa  bacteria, 
clover  bacteria  or  soy  bean  badteria.  Wherever  seedlings 
were  used  instead  of  seed,  they  were  first  grown  in  sand  and 
then  transferred  to  proper  jars. 

The  moisture  content  was  maintained  at  60  per  cent  satur- 
ation for  the  Colby  silt  loam  and  at  50  per  cent  saturation 
for  the  Plainfield  sand. 


Results  of  Pot  Experiments  for  1914 

The  first  experiment  was  started  late  in  ^ the  spring  of 
1914.  At  that  time  only  one  soil  type,  Colby  silt  loam,  was 
available.  After  determining  the  soil  acidity,  carbonate  of 
lime  was  added  as  follows:  jars  5 to  8 inclusive  received 
.0808  gram  per  100  grams  of  soil,  jars  9 to  12  inclusive 
received  .1617  gram  per  100  grams  of  soil.  The  first  amount 
is  sufficient  to  neutralize  one-half,  and  the  last  amount,  all  of 
the  acidity  indicated  by  the  Veitch  method.  The  lime  was 
added  in  the  form  of  pure  calcium  carbonate  and  intimately 
mixed  with  the  soil. 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


The  Effect  of  Treatmp.nt  on  the  Yield  of  Alfalfa 
'AND  Soy  Beans 

May  29,  1914,  the  jars  were  planted  to  alfalfa.  The  seed 
germinated  well,  giving  a uniform  stand.  After  two  weeks 
the  seedlings  were  thinned  to  35  per  jar.  For  several  weeks 
after  planting,  the  seedlings  in  all  jars  appeared  much  alike. 
After  about  six  weeks,  the  uninoculated  unlimed  plants 
began  to  turn  yellow  and  remained  this  color  during  the 
entire  growing  period. 


Table  I. — The  Influence  of  Inoculation  With  and  Without  Lime 
ON  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Content  of  Alfalfa 
ON  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  weight  of  different  crops 

Nitrogen  in  different  crops 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Roots 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Roots 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Roots 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Mgm. 

Mgm. 

Mgm. 

Mgm. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

P.Ct. 

1 

14.3 

7.23 

4.66 

20.34 

531.2 

294.9 

225.4 

618.0 

3.71 

4.07. 

4.83 

3.04 

2 

13.23 

5.29 

3.94 

18.20 

533.1 

220.6 

175.5 

539.3 

4.02 

4.17 

4.45 

2.96 

Av. 

13.76 

6.26 

4.30 

19.27 

532.1 

257.7 

200.4 

578.6 

3.86 

4.12 

4.64 

3.00 

3 

15.54 

5.84 

. 4.94 

18.36 

613.6 

239.3 

233.7 

513.2 

3.94 

4.09 

4.73 

2.80 

4 

15.74 

6.43 

4.03 

15.16 

680.4 

268.5 

195.4 

496.4 

4.32 

4.17 

4.84 

3.20 

Av. 

15.64 

6.13 

4.48 

16.76 

647.0 

253.9 

214.5 

504.8 

4.13 

4.13 

4.78 

3.00 

5 

14.42 

5.62 

4.86 

18.85 

592.6 

246.2 

231.5 

546.3 

4.11 

4.38 

4.76 

2.90 

6 

15.29 

5.64 

4.59 

20.87 

648.2 

260.8 

197.2 

609.6 

4.23 

4.62 

4.29 

2.92 

Av. 

14.85 

5.6 

4.72 

19.86 

620.4 

253.5 

214.3 

577.9 

4.17 

4.50 

4.52 

2.91 

7 

16.74 

7.34 

5.15 

24.88 

712.2 

327.7 

249.1 

737.8 

4.25 

4.46 

4.83 

2.97 

8 

16.79 

6.59 

4.71 

24.53 

712.4 

285.2 

222.6 

694.0 

4.24 

4.32 

4.72 

2.90 

Av. 

16.76 

6.96 

4.93 

24.70 

712.3 

306.4 

235.8 

715.9 

4.25 

4.39 

4.77 

2.93 

9 

14.08 

5.86 

4.62 

24.00 

549.2 

246.5 

204.3 

662.3 

3.90 

4.20 

4.42 

2.76 

10 

15.89 

7.16 

5.18 

22.79 

622.4 

306.2 

228.9 

686.3 

3.91 

4.27 

4.41 

3.01 

Av. 

14.98 

6.51 

. 4.90 

23.39 

585.8 

276.3 

216.6 

674.3 

3.90 

4.23 

4.41 

2.88 

11 

18.21 

8.20 

5.00 

19.71 

768.8 

357.5 

235.2 

587.8 

4.22 

4.35 

4.70 

2.98 

12 

18.48 

8.97 

4.52 

18.24 

761.7 

385.0 

218.7 

560.3 

4.12 

4.29 

4.83 

3.07 

Av. 

18.34 

8.58 

4.76 

18.97 

765.2 

371.2 

226.9 

574.0 

4.17 

4.32 

4.76 

3.02 

l"ive  crops  in  all  were  taken  from  the  soil  in  this  series, 
three  of  alfalfa  and  two  of  soy  beans.  After  the  third  crop 
was  harvested  and  the  roots  carefully  removed,  the  jars  were 
planted  to  soy  beans. 

The  lirst  crop  of  alfalfa  was  harvested  on  October  6,  1914. 
The  second  crop  was  harvested  on  November  19,  and  the 
third  on  January  2,  1915.  The  crops  were  air  dried  and 
kept  for  analysis. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


•11 


Yield  of  Alfalfa 


Table  I gives  the  dry  weights,  the  total  nitrogen,  and 
percentage  of  nitrogen  in  the  different  crops.  From  the 
data  presented  in  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  maximum 
yield  was  obtained  with  the  first  crop.  Because  of  weather 
conditions,  very  little  sunlight,  etc.,  the  later  cuttings  of 
alfalfa  were  much  lighter.  The  data  show,  moreover,  that 
the  benefit  derived  from  inoculation  alone  was  most  marked 
in  the  first  crop.  The  dry  weight*  of  the  first  cutting,  un- 
inoculated jars  1 and  2,  was  13.7  grams  as  compared  with 
the  inoculated  jars  3 and  4,  15.6  grams,  an  increase  of  1.9 
grams  or  13.8  per  cent.  The  second  and  third  crops  failed 
to  show  any  noticeable  difference  in  weight.  The  uninocu- 
lated plus  half  lime,**  jars  5 and  6,  produced  slightly 
more  growth  in  the  first  and  third  crops  than  did  the  corres- 
ponding control  jars  1 and  2,  while  the  inoculated  jars  7 and 
8,  plus  half  lime,  produced  larger  yields  in  every  case  than 
the  controls.  The  increase  in  this  series  amounted  to  3 grams 
or  21.6  per  cent. 

Where  full  lime  was  applied,  the  inoculated  jars  11  and 
12  gave,  in  the  first  cutting,  a yield  of  4.58  grams  more  than 
the  control,  or  a gain  of  33.2  per  cent,  and  in  the  second 
cutting  a gain  of  37.0  per  cent.  The  average  weight  of  dry 
matter,  duplicate  pots,  for  the  three  crops  was  as  follows: 


Controls  uninoculated 

Controls  inoculated 

One-half  lime  uninoculated 

One-half  lime  inoculated 

Full  lime  uninoculated 

Full  lime  inoculated 


24.33  grams  ' 
26.26  grams 
25.21  grams 
28.61  grams 
26.40  grams 
31.69  grams 


The  results  as  a whole  show  that  inoculation  without  other 
treatment  is  beneficial  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa  in  acid  soils, 
especially  to  the  first  crop.  Likewise,  lime  enhances  crop 
production.  Lime  alone,  when  applied  in  small  amounts, 
gave  a slight  increase,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as  inoculation 
alone.  One-half  lime  and  inoculation  combined  gave  a 
greater  yield  than  either  alone.  Where  larger  amounts 
of  lime  were  applied,  a correspondingly  larger  yield  was 
obtained.  Jars  11  and  12  inoculated  with  full  lime  produced 

^Whenever  crop  yields  or  percentages  of  nitrogen  or  total  nitrogen  arc  compared, 
the  average  of  duplicate  jars  is  taken  as  a basis  for  comparison. 

**Whcrevcr  the  term  “ lime”  is  used,  pure  calcium  carbonate  is  meant. 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


the  maximum  gain  in  growth.  For  the  maximum  produc- 
tion of  alfalfa  hay  on  Colby  silt  loam  soil,  lime  and  inoculation ^ 
are  essential.  Figure  2 shows,  at  a glance,  the  differences  in 

January  2 the  alfalfa 
was  cut  for  the  last  time, 
the  roots  carefully  remov- 
ed, and  nodule  formation 
recorded.  The  root  tissue 
including  the  nodules  was 
saved  for  analysis.  In 
removing  roots  from  the 
soil,  a considerable  por- 
tion of  the  finer  roots  was 
unavoidably  left  in  the 
soil.  For  this  reason  it 
was  difficult  to  determine 
the  true  benefit  from  the 
use  of  lime  and  inocula- 
tion. In  all  cases,  except 
jars  1 and  2,  the  roots 
showed  a profuse  development.  A few  nodules  were  pres- 
ent on  all  the  uninoculated  roots.  All  of  the  inoculated 
roots  were  thoroughly  infected  with  numerous  nodules. 

Yield  of  Soy  Beans 

February  15,  1915,  the  jars  were  replanted  to  I to  San  soy 
beans.  The  bacteria-free  seeds  were  germinated  in  sterilized 
sand.  Only  10  plants  were  allowed  to  mature  in  each  jar. 
The  plan  followed  was  the  same  as  in  the  previous  experi- 
ment. Because  of  the  cold  and  cloudy  weather,  growth  was 
very  poor.  As  late  as  April  1 the  plants  were  partially 
yellow  and  badly  infected  with  -red  spider.  The  crop  was 
harvTslcd  April  26,  the  tops  removed,  weighed,  and  kept  for 
analysis.  A record  of  nodule  production  was  made.  Jars  1, 
5,  6,  and  9 were  free  of  all  nodules;  2 and  10  contained  one 
nodule  each;  3,  7,  8,  11,  and  12  contained  numerous  nodules 
and  jar  4 a few  nodules. 

The  experiment  was  repeated,  using  Wisconsin  Black  soy 
beans,  an  early  maturing  variety.  The  first  of  May,*[^25 
seeds  free  of  bacteria  were  i)lantcd  in  each  pot.  The  seeds 


yield  of  the  various  crops. 


FIG.  2.— GROWTH  OF  ALFALFA  ON 
COLBY  SILT  LOAM. 

a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c.  full  lime. 
The  checked  columns  denote  uninoculated 
and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


13 


in  inoculated  jars  were  treated  with  a pure  culture  of  soy 
bean  organisms.  It  was  found  that  Wisconsin  Black  soy 
beans  grew  better  and  produced  larger  yields  than  the  Ito 
San  soy  beans.  Here  again,  only  10  plants  were  allowed  to 
mature  in  each  jar.  After  the  first  month  the  uninoculated 
plants  turned  yellow  and  the  leaves  began  to  drop.  On 
July  12  this  crop  was  harvested,  weighed,  and  kept  for 
analysis.  After  noting  nodule  development,  the  roots  were 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  Jars  1 and  10  were  slightly 
inoculated;  all  other  uninoculated  jars  were  free  of  nodules. 
All  inoculated  jars  showed  numerous  nodules. 


Table  II. — The  Influence  of  Inoculation  With  and  Without  Lime 
ON  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Content  of  Soy 
Beans  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  weight  of  different  crops 

Nitrogen  in  different  crops 

Tops 

Tops 

Tops 

Tops 

Tops 

Tops 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Mgm. 

Mgm. 

P.  Ct. 

P.Ct. 

1 

16.79 

14.10 

572.9 

427.5 

3.41 

3.03 

2 

17.96 

14.50 

569.7 

483.5 

3.17 

3.32 

Av. 

17.37 

14.30 

571.3 

455.5 

3.29 

3.17 

3 

16.64 

17.64 

648.1 

612.2 

3.89 

3.47 

4 

13.62 

18.43 

546.7 

670.3 

4.01 

3.65 

Av. 

15.13 

18.03 

597.4 

641.2 

3.95 

3.56 

5 

17.46 

14.04 

523.8 

376.0 

3.00 

2.68 

6 

16.86 

17.54 

546.4 

349.6 

3.24 

2.00 

Av. 

17.16 

15.79 

535.1 

362.8 

3.12 

2.34 

7 

16.19 

19.03 

602.8 

634.8 

3.72 

3.34 

8 

17.06 

17.21 

665.3 

570.2 

3.90 

3.31 

Av. 

16.62 

18.12 

634.0 

602.5 

3.81 

3.32 

9 

17.46 

14.60 

543.0 

330.8 

3.11 

2.26 

10 

20.86 

15.03 

645.6 

390.0 

3.09 

2.60 

Av. 

19.16 

14.81 

594.3 

360.4 

3.10 

2.43 

11 

20.86 

19.48 

812.5 

683.3 

3.89 

3.51' 

12 

19.47 

17.68 

755.2 

604.0 

3.88 

3.42 

Av. 

20.16 

18.58 

783.8 

643.6 

3.88 

3.46 

In  Table  II  are  recorded  the  complete  data  for  this  exper- 
iment. 

The  first  crop  did  not  respond  favorably  to  treatment, 
except  in  jars  9,  10,  11;  and  12,  where  a slight  increase  was 
noted. 

The  second  crop  responded  favorably  to  inoculation,  but 
failed  to  produce  an  appreciable  increased|yield  in  the]|pres- 
ence  of  lime.  This  does  not  agree  with  results  from  the  Ala- 
bama Station  (6),  where  lime  caused  an  increase  in  yield  of 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


soy  beans  of  49  per  cent.  A possible  explanation  for  this 
may  be  found  in  the  difference  in  soil  type.  The  precent- 

age  increase  due  to  inocula- 
tion was  26.0,  to  inoculation 
plus  full  lime,  29.9,  and  lime 
alone,  3.9.  In  order  to  bring 
out  more  clearly  the  effect 
of  treatment  on  the  growth 
of  soy  beans,  the  results  of 
the  preceding  table  have 
been  arranged  in  the  form 
of  columns  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 3. 

The  Effect  of  Treatment 
ON  THE  Nitrogen  Con- 
tent OF  Alfalfa  and 
Soy  Beans 

The  influence  of  inocu- 
lation alone  and  with  lime 
on  the  total  quantity  of 
^T)N^AmBY  s^lt^l^am^^^^  nitrogcn  and  percentage  of 

a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c. 'full  lime.  nitrOgCn  will  bc  disCUSSCd 
The  checked  columns  denote  uninocula- 

ted  and  the  dark  columns  inoculated.  UnQer  tlllS  UCaQ. 

Nitrogen  Content  of  Alfalfa  , 

From  the  data  of  Table  I,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  percent- 
age of  nitrogen  varies  with  -the  different  crops.  It  was 
lowest  in  the  first  and  highest  in  the  third  crop.  Apparently 
a profuse  growth  resulted  in  a decreased  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen. Jars  1 and  2,-  the  lirst  crop,  contained  3.86  per  cent  of 
nitrogen  and  jars  1 1 and  12,  1.17  per  cent.  Lime  and  inocu- 
lation ])rovcd  very  beneficial.  The  differences  in  precentage 
ot  nitrogen  in  the  other  two  crops  were  not  so  pronounced. 
Hall  lime  plus  inoculation  was  equally  as  effective  as  full 
lime  plus  inoculation  in  increasing  the  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen in  the  crops.  The  roots  did  not  show  any  consistent 
benefit  from  inoculation  or  lime. 

In  Table  III  are  presented  summary  data  showing  the  re- 
sults ot  the  allalfa  experiment.  The  figures  of  the  table  give 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


15 


the  average  weight  and  nitrogen  content  of  all  crops  in  grams 
and  the  relative  weight  in  pounds  per  acre  (9).  The  bene- 
ficial effect  of  inoculation  is  marked  not  only  by  a greater 
yield,  but  also  by  a greater  gain  in  nitrogen.  Since  the  same 
number  of  plants  were  grown  in  each  jar,  the  increase  must 
be  due  to  a greater  growth  of  the  individual  plant  (2,  p.  182). 


Table  III. — Effect  of  Treatment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  Alfalfa  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total  nitrogen  due  to 
treatment 

Average 
for  du- 
plicate 
jars 

Per  acre 

Average 
for  du- 
plicate 
jars 

Per 

acre 

Milligrams 
for  duplicate 
jar 

Per 

acre 

Total 

Tops 

Tops  and 
roots 

Tops 

Tops  and 
roots 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

ll 

Tops 

24.33 

3892.8 

990.35 

158.46 

2J 

Roots 

19.27 

3083.2 

578.65 

92.58 

251.04 

31 

Tops 

26.26 

4201.6 

1115.45 

178.47 

125.1 

20.01 

4J 

Roots 

16.76 

2681.6 

504.8 

80.77 

259.24 

51.3 

8.20 

51 

Tops 

25.21 

4033.6 

1088.26 

174.12 

97.9 

15.66 

6 

Roots 

19.86 

3177.6 

577.95 

92.47 

266.59 

97.2 

15.55 

71 

Tops 

28.66 

4585. 6 

1254.58 

200.73 

264.2 

42.27 

8i 

Roots 

24.71 

3953.6 

715.9 

114.54 

315.27 

401.5 

64.23 

91 

Tops 

26.40 

4224.0 

1078.74 

172.60 

88.4 

14.14 

10/ 

Roots 

23.40 

3744.0 

674.3 

107.89 

280.49 

184.1 

29.45 

111 

Tops 

31.69 

5070.4 

1363.43 

218.15 

373.1 

59.69 

12  j 

Roots 

18.98 

3036.8 

574.05 

91.85 

310.00 

368.4 

58.96 

The  increase  in  total  nitrogen  due  to  inoculation  alone  was 
20.1  pounds  per  acre,  to  full  lime  inoculation,  59.69  pounds. 
Lime  treatment  alone  failed  to  cause  any  decided  gain  in  the 
yield  of  dry  matter  or  the  amount  of  nitrogen. 

The  effect  of  the  different  treatments  is  shown  very  clearly 
in  the  columns  of  Figure  4.  The  yield  of  dry  matter,  the 
total  nitrogen  content,  and  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  dry 
matter  were  increased  by  inoculation. 

Nitrogen  Content  of  Soy  Beans 

The  results  of  Table  II  show  the  marked  beneficial  influ- 
ence of  inoculation  on  the  precentage  of  nitrogen  in  soy 
beans.  This  is  true  both  in  the  first  and  second  crops. 
Unlike  the  experiments  with  alfalfa,  it  was  found  that  lime 
alone  did  not  increase  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  soy  beans. 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


FIG.  4.— GROWTH  AND  NITROGEN 
CONTENT  OF  ALFALFA  ON 
COLBY  SILT  LOAM 

The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
iated  and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


In  order  to  show  the 
effect  of  treatment  on 
the  yield  of  dry  matter 
and  quanity  of  nitrogen 
in  the  crops  of  soy  beans, 
the  data  of  Table  II  are 
presented  in  summary 
form  in  Table  IV.  The 
results  show  a large  in- 
crease in  nitrogen  in  all 
of  the  inoculated  jars. 
This  amounted  to  39.0 
per  cent  in  the  case  of 
jars  3 and  4.  The  max- 
imum amount  of  nitrogen 
was  found  in  the  crop 
taken  from  soil  receiving 
the  largest  application  of 
lime.  This  agrees  with 
the  results  of  Lipman  and  his  associates  (11)  who  noted  that 
lime  increases  the  nitrogen  content  of  soy  beans.  Apparently 
in  Colby  silt  loam  soil  inoculation  is  more  important  than 
lime  for  the  first  two  Pe« 

crops  of  soy  beans.  A 
summary  of  the  results 
of  the  preceding  table  is 
shown  in  Figure  5. 

Results  of  Pot  Exper- 
iments FOR  1915 

The  same  general  plan 
was  followed  as  in  the 
previous  experiments. 

However,  the  study  was 
extended  to  include  two 
soil  types,  acid  Colby  silt 
loam  taken  from  the  same 
place  as  the  soil  used  in 
the  previous  tests,  and 
acid  Plainfield  sand. 


FIG.  5.— GROWTH  AND  NITROGEN 
CONTENT  OF  SOY  BEANS  ON  h 
COLBY  SILT  LOAM  j 

'I'hc  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
lated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


17 


Two  different  crops  were  grown  on  each  soil  type,  alfalfa 
and  red  clover. 

The  soils  were  collected  in  the  fall  of  1914,  carefully  potted 
and  various  amounts  of  lime  added.  In  all  of  the  experi- 
ments, carbonate  of  lime  was  applied  in  amounts  sufficient 
to  neutralize  one-half  and  all  of  the  soil  acidity  according  to 
the  Truog  (18)  method.  Colby  silt  loam  jars,  5 to  8 inclu- 
sive, received  0.52  gram  per  100  grams  of  soil,  jars  9 to  12 


Table  IV. — Effect  of  Treatment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  Soy  Beans  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Group 

Dry  weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total 
nitrogen  due  to 
treatment 

No. 

Average  for 

Average  for 

Average  for 

duplicate 

Per  acre 

duplicate 

Per  acre 

duplicate 

Per  acr<> 

jars 

jars 

jars 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

1 

31.68 

5.068.8 

1,026.79 

164.29 

2 

33.17 

5,307.2 

1,238.65 

198.18 

211.86 

33.89 

3 

32.95 

5,272.0 

897.90 

143.66 

-128.90 

-20.63 

4 

34.75 

5,560.0 

1,236.55 

197.85 

210.00 

33.56 

5 

33.98 

5,436.8 

954.70 

152.75 

-72.00 

-11.54 

6 

38.75 

6,200.0 

1,427.50 

228.40 

400.70 

64.11 

inclusive,  of  the  same  series,  received  1.04  grams  per  100 
grams  of  soil.  The  Truog  method  shows  much  larger 
amounts  of  soil  acidity  than  the  Veitch.  Plainfield  sand 
jars,  5 to  8 inclusive,  received  0.26  gram  per  100  grams 
of  soil,  jars  9 to  12  inclusive,  0.52  gram.  In  addition  to  the 
carbonate  of  lime  treatment,  the  sand  series  received  on 
April  17  an  application  of  0.25  gram  of  dibasic  potassium 
phosphate  per  kilogram  of  dry  sand. 

The  Effect  of  Treatment  on  the  Yield  of  Alfalfa 
AND  Red  Clover 

February  16,  1915,  two  series  of  12  jars  each,  Colby  silt 
loam  and  Plainfield  sand,  were  planted  to  alfalfa.  The  seed- 
lings in  one-half  of  the  jars  of  each  series  were  thoroughly 
inoculated,  the  other  half  were  kept  as  free  from  alfalfa 
bacteria  as  possible.  Two  weeks  later,  the  other  series  of 
12  jars  each,  Colby  silt  loam  and  Plainfield  sand,  were  plant- 
ed to  clover.  The  same  plan  was  followed  as  in  the  alfalfa 
experiments.  In  all  cases  25  plants  were  allowed  to  mature. 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


Weather  conditions  were  unusually  favorable  for  greenhouse 
work.  Five  crops  were  harvested  from  each  of  the  alfalfa 
series  on  the  following  dates:  April  28,  June  9,  July  12, 

August  21,  and  September  22.  After  the  last  crop  was 
harvested,  the  roots  were  carefully  removed,  notes  taken  on 
nodule  formation,  and  the  tissue  kept  for  analysis.  Because 
of  the  large  number  of  very  fine  rootlets,  it  was  found  very 
difficult  to  remove  all  of  the  roots  from  the  soil.  The  differ- 
ent crops  were  also  dried  and  kept  for  analysis.  The  soils 
were  mixed  thoroughly  and  samples  were  drawn  for  analysis. 

From  the  two  clover  series,  three  crops  were  harvested  as 
follows:  June  1,  July  12,  and  September  22.  After  the 

last  crop  was  cut,  the  soils  were  removed  from  the  pots,  the 
roots  examined  for  nodules  and  then  returned  to  the  soil. 
This  procedure  was  necessary  in  order  to  secure  decomposi- 
tion of  the  root  tissue  before  sampling  the  soils.  No  attempt 
was  made  to  measure  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  clover  roots. 
After  decomposition  had  taken  place,  three  months  later, 
the  soils  were  sampled  in  the  same  manner  as  the  soils  from 
the  alfalfa  series. 

Yield  of  Alfalfa  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 

In  Table  V are  recorded  the  dry  weights  of  the  five  alfalfa 
crops,  the  roots  as  well  as  the  total  nitrogen  and  the  percent- 
age of  nitrogen  of  each  crop.  The  treated  jars  show  a 
large  and  uniform  increase  in  yield  of  dry  matter,  which  is 
well  marked  in  each  one  of  the  five  crops.  In  the  no-lime 
series,  the  beneficial  effect  of  inoculation  on  plant  growth 
became  more  noticeable  wiU;i  the  successive  crops.  The 
greatest  difference  was  fourxl  in  the  fifth  crop.  Here  the 
inoculated  series  produced  more  than  double  as  much  alfalfa 
as  the  uninoculated  control,  or  an  increase  of  120.3  per  cent. 
JJie  average  weight  of  dry  matter  for  duplicate  pots,  includ- 
ing live  crops,  was  as  follows: 

.Control  iininoriilatcd 34.36  grams 

Control  inoculated 49.77  grams 

One-half  lime  iminoculated 59.88  grams 

One-half  lime  inoculated 65.18  grams 

I'ull  lime  uninoculated 61.38  grams 

h'ull  lime  inoculated 67.39  grams 

It  is  significant  that  half  lime  should  produce  almost  as 
great  a yield  of  dry  matter  as  the  full  amount  required  to 


Table  V. — The  Influence  of  Inoculation  With  and  Without  Lime  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Content  of 

Alfalfa  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


19 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


neutralize  soil  acidity.  This  is  true  of  each  one  of  the  five 
crops.  Somewhat  similar  results  have  been  reported  from 
other  stations. 

For  example,  Hopkins  of  Illinois  (10)  reports  that  moder- 
ate quantities  of  calcium  carbonate  applied  to  acid  soils 
greatly  favor  the  growth  of  legumes. 

According  to  Frear  (7)  the  growth  of  red  clover  on  acid 
soil  is  greatly  benefited  when  the  acidity  is  only  partially 
neutralized. 


GRAMS 


FIG.  6.— GROWTH  OF 


ALFALFA  ON  COLBY  SILT  LOAM 


a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c.  full  lime.  The  checked  columns  denote  uninoculated 
and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Lipman  (12)  found  that  lime  increases  the  yield  of  dry 
matter  of  crimson  clover  and  likewise  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen.  Small  quantities  of  lime  produced  nearly  as  great 
yields  as  large  quanties  of  lime. 

In  regard  to  the  activity  of  the  soil  bacteria,  Scales  (16) 
found  that  according  to  the  Veitch  method  the  nitrifying 
and  ammonifying  bacteria  were  most  active  in  the  presence 
of  50  to  75  per  cent  of  the  calcium  carbonate- requirement, 
from  the  data  of  Table  V,  it  appears  that  smaller  quantities 
of  lime  than  those  indicated  by  the  Truog  method  will  give 
almost  maximum  results. 

1 he  quantity  of  lime  required  to  produce  a good  growth 
of  legumes  is  one  of  the  important  problems  of  scientific 
agriculture.  If  just  half  enough  to  neutralize  soil  acidity 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


21 


is  all  that  is  needed,  as  indicated  by  the  foregoing  data, 
then  it  is  well  to  bring  this  point  to  the  attention  of  the 
farmers. 

The  effect  of  treatment  on  the  differences  in  yield  of 
dry  matter  is  brought  out  very  clearly  in  the  columns  of 
Figure  6. 

Yield  of  Alfalfa  on  Plainfield  Sand 

With  the  exception  of  soil  type  and  the  addition  of  a potas- 
sium and  phosphate  fertilizer,  the  conditions  of  this  experi- 
ment were  the  same  as  those  of  alfalfa  in  Colby  silt  loam 


GRAMS 

20 
18 
16 
14 
12 
10 


6 

4 

2 


FIG.  7.— GROWTH  OF  ALFALFA  ON  PLAINFIELD  SAND 

a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c.  full  lime.  The  checked  columns  denote  uninoculated 
and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


soil.  The  results  of  all  nitrogen  determinations,  as  well  as 
dry  weights,  are  expressed  in  Table  VI.  The  influence  of 
inoculation  was  noticeable  in  the  first  two  cuttings,  and  very 
marked  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  cuttings.  The  differ- 
ences in  development  of  inoculated  alfalfa,  with  and  without 
lime,  are  shown  in  Plate  I.  The  maximum  benefit  from 
inoculation  was  obtained  in  the  last  crop.  Plates  II  and  III 
illustrate  the  influence  of  inoculation  on  alfalfa  in  Plainfield 
sand.  The  roots  shown  in  Plate  III  were  taken  from  the  plants 
shown  in  Plate  II.  In  this  case,  alfalfa  on  Plainfield  sand, 
the  effect  of  inoculation  was  particularly  great.  A sum- 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


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Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


23 


mary  of  the  effect  of  the  various  treatments  on  production 
of  dry  matter  is  shown  below: 


Control  uninoculated 14.04  grams 

Control  inoculated 27.41  grams 

One-half  lime  uninoculated ! 57.65  grams 

One-half  lime  inoculated ; 60.85  grams 

Full  lime  uninoculated 53.76  grams 

Full  lime  inoculated 60.28  grams 


Here  again,  one-half  lime  gives  equally  as  large  yields  as 
full  lime.  It  is  apparent  from  the  data  of  these  two  experi- 
ments that  small  quantities  of  lime  are  more  economical  in 
improving  crop  production  than  quantities  great  enough  to 
neutralize  all  soil  acidity.  A comparison  of  the  total  weights 


Table  VII. — The  Influence  of  Inoculation  With  and  Without  Lime 
ON  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Content  of  Clover 
ON  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  Weight  of  Different  Crops 

Nitrogen  in  Different  Crops 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Tops 

1 

Tohs 

2 

Tops 

3 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Mgm. 

Mgm., 

Mgm. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

1 

15.29 

17.94 

21.60 

547.4 

698.9 

674.1 

3.58 

3.90 

3.12 

2 

17.84 

19.84 

20.62 

639.9 

770.4 

665.6 

3.58 

3.88 

3.23 

Av. 

16.56 

18.89 

21.11 

593.6 

734.6 

669.8 

3.58 

3.89 

3.17 

3 

20.32 

17.63 

19.09 

754.7 

716.8 

626.7 

3.71 

4.07 

3.28 

4 

19.40 

17.68 

16.95 

716.3 

703.5 

551.6 

3.69 

3.98 

3.26 

Av. 

19.86 

17.65 

18.02 

735.5 

710.1 

589.1 

3.70 

4.02 

3.27 

5 

19.78 

17.74 

24.20 

768.5 

696.2 

803.7 

3.88 

3.92 

3.32 

6 

21.17 

17.99 

24.94 

798.7 

669.6 

822.0 

3.77 

3.72 

3.30 

Av. 

20.47 

17.86 

24.57 

783.6 

682.9 

812.8 

3.82 

3.82 

3.31 

7 

20.43 

16.63 

20.88 

794.1 

656.4 

706.4 

3.88 

3.95 

3.38 

8 

21.35 

18.52 

21.29 

843.3 

754.3 

739.0 

3.95 

4.07 

3.47 

Av. 

20.89 

17.57 

21.08 

818.7 

705.3 

722.7 

3.91 

4.01 

3.42 

9 

17.80 

16.28 

25.13 

700.3 

681.6 

853.4 

3.93 

4.19 

3.40 

10 

20.53 

17.26 

26.17 

806.2 

705.2 

887,7 

3.93 

4.09 

3.39 

Av. 

19.16 

16.77 

25.65 

753.2 

693.4 

870.5 

3.93 

4.14 

3.39 

11 

23.13 

18.61 

22.57 

875.5 

719.7 

727.9 

3.78 

3.87 

3.23 

12 

21.35 

20.69 

23.60 

858.4 

817.3 

774.1 

4.01 

3.95 

3.28 

Av. 

22.24 

19.65 

23.08 

866.9 

768.5 

751.0 

3.89 

3.91 

3.25 

of  all  five  crops  shows  that  lime  alone  in  Plainfield  sand  was 
nearly  as  efficient  in  stimulating  plant  growth  as  lime  plus 
inoculation. 

In  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  effect  of  the  various 
treatments  on  plant  growth,  a summary  of  the  data  of  Table 
VI  is  shown  in  Figure  7, 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


Yield  of  Clover  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 

In  Table  VII  data  are  given  which  show  the  dry  weights 
for  all  crops,  and  the  total  nitrogen  analyses.  Unlike  the  ’ 
preceding  experiments  with  alfalfa  or  soy  beans,  treatment 
did  not  cause  any  consistent  gain  in  yield  of  dry  matter. 
With  the  exception  of  jars  7 and  8,  the  first  crop  apparently 
received  all  of  the  benefit  from  the  use  of  lime  and  inocula- 
tion. Inoculation  alone  produced  an  increase  of  3.3  grams 

or  19.9  per  cent.  Full  lime 
with  inoculation  increased 
crop  growth  by  5.68  grams 
or  34.3  per  cent.  The  other 
two  crops  failed  to  show 
much  benefit  from  the  treat- 
ment. 

The  total  yield  of  the 
three  crops  did  not  show  a 
gain  due  to  inoculation 
alone.  The  maximum  total 
yield  was  obtained  from 
the  use  of  full  lime  and  in- 
oculation. Here  the  in- 
crease was  8.41  grams  or 
14.8  per  cent.  Although 
this  soil  is  decidedly  acid,  it 
seems  well  suited  for  the 
growth  of  red  clover.  The 
results  from  Colby  silt  loam 
do  not  agree  with  those  obtained  with  Maryland  soil.  Veitch 
(20)  observed  that  red  clover  does  not  thrive  well  on  Mary- 
land soil  with  a lime  requirement  of  eight  to  twelve  hun- 
dred pounds  of  lime  per  acre..  The  percentage  gain  from 
treatment  is  low  when  compared  with  yields  obtained  with 
alfalfa.  In  Figure  8 the  yields  of  different  crops  are  shown 
by  a series  of  columns. 

Yield  of  Clover  on  Plainfield  Sand 

The  data  presented  in  Table  VIII  are  similar  to  those  of 
clover  on  Colby  silt  loam. 


GRAMS 
24 
22 
20 
18 
16 
14 
12 
10 
8 
6 
4 
2 


fig.  8.— growth  of  clover  on 

COLBY  SILT  LOAM 

a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c.  full  lime. 
The  checked  columns  denote  uninocula- 
ted and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


25 


Inoculation  alone  gave  an  increased  crop  production.  The 
increase  was  most  noticeable  in  the  first  crop,  amounting  to 
30.6  per  cent  more  than  was  obtained  in  the  control  jars  1 
and  2.  Inoculated  with  full  lime,  first  crop,  jars  11  and  12, 
gave  an  increased  growth  of  11.08  grams  or  106.6  per  cent. 
In  every  case  the  first  crop  was  most  benefited  by  the  treat- 

Table  VIII. — The  Influence  of  Inoculation  With  and  Without 
Lime  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Content 
OF  Clover  on  Plainfield  Sand 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  Wdght  of  Different  Crops 

Nitrogen  in  Different  Crons 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Tops 

1 

Tops 

2 

Tops 

3 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Gms. 

Mmg. 

Mgm. 

Mgm. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

, 1 

10.48 

17.75 

18.99 

334.6 

679.0 

557.4 

3.19 

3.83 

2.94 

2 

10.30 

16.59 

23.00 

334.5 

643.2 

660.3 

3.25 

3.88 

2.87 

Av. 

10.39 

17.17 

20.99 

334.5 

661.1 

608.8 

3.22 

3.85 

2.90 

3 

13.94 

17.45 

23.32 

599.8 

712.3 

620.9 

4.31 

4.08 

2.66 

4 

13.21 

16.55 

23.26 

564.9 

705.0 

688.5 

4.27 

4.26 

2.96 

Av. 

13.57 

17.00 

23.29 

582.3 

708.6 

654.7 

4.29 

4.17 

2.81 

5 

17.72 

24.55 

31.29 

704.2 

920.9 

871.4 

3.97 

3.75 

2.79 

6 

17.91 

22.49 

32.58 

687.9 

832.8 

930.7 

3.84 

3.70 

2.86 

Av. 

17.81 

23.52 

31.93 

696.0 

876.8 

901.0 

3.90 

3.72 

2.82 

7 

18.94 

22.65 

37.52 

755.3 

867.3 

1,038.6 

3.98 

3.83 

2.77 

8 

19.68 

21.76 

33.03 

793.9 

848.7 

925.5 

4.03 

3.90 

2.80 

Av. 

19.31 

22.20 

35.27 

774.6 

858.0 

982.0 

4.00 

3.86 

2.78 

9 

17.19 

20.98 

32.29 

617.3 

717.1 

832.1 

3.59 

3.42 

2.58 

10 

20.77 

19.69 

30.35 

807.9 

732.9 

846.5 

3.89 

3.72 

2.79 

Av. 

18.98 

20.33 

31.32 

712.6 

725.0 

839.3 

3.74 

3.57 

2.68 

11 

19.88 

22.65 

37.56 

783.7 

824.7 

1,039.3 

3.94 

3.64 

2.77 

12 

23.06 

20.67 

30.35 

884.4 

710.2 

779.4 

3.83 

3.44 

2.57 

Av. 

21.47 

21.66 

33.95 

834.0 

767.4 

909.3 

3.88 

3.54 

2.67 

ment.  The  increased  growth  due  to  treatment  is  shown  in 
Plate  IV. 

The  total  yields  of  all  crops  weighed  more  in  the  treated, 
than  in  the  untreated  jars.  The  increase  due  to  inoc- 
ulation alone  was  5.31  grams  or  10.9  per  cent.  The  greater 
yield  due  to  inoculation  with  full  lime  was  28.53  grams  or 
58.7  per  cent.  Lime  and  inoculation  are  accordingly  very 
beneficial  in  producing  maximum  yields  of  clover  on  acid 
Plainfield  sand.  This  is  shown  very  clearly  by  Figure  9. 


The  Effect  of  Treatment  on  the  Nitrogen  Content 
OF  Alfalfa  and  Clover 

The  data  herewith  presented  were  taken  from  the  figures 
of  Tables  V and  VI.  Here  only  the  summary  tables  will  be 
shown. 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


Nitrogen  Content  of  Alfalfa  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


According  to  the  results  of  Table  V the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  the  different  cuttings  varied  widely.  It  was 
greatest  in  the  first  and  smallest  in  the  fifth  crop.  As  a rule, 

a small  yield  of  dry  matter 

CDAMC  ^ 

is  accompanied  by  a high 
percentage  of  nitrogen. 
For  example,  inoculation 
alone  caused  a great  increase 
in  the  percentage  of  nitrogen. 
The  average  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  five  crops,  jars 
1 and  2 uninoculated  was 
3.47;  in  jars  3 and  4 inocu- 
lated was  4.25.  Lime  alone 
caused  a slight  gain  in  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  al- 
though much  less  than  in- 
oculation. In  view  of  the 
increased  yield  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  limed  series,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  the  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  was 
smaller  than  in  the  inocu- 
lated series. 

The  beneficial  effect  of 
treatment  on  the  total  ni- 
trogen of  alfalfa  is  shown  in 
summary  Table  IX.  From 
the  results  of  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  jars  1 and  2,  uninocu- 
laled,  contained  1,LS2.8  milligrams  of  nitrogen,  while  jars  3 and 
4,  inoculated,  contained  2,059.65  milligrams,  a difference  of 
<S7().8  milligrams  in  favor  of  inoculation.  Calculated  in 
terms  of  iiounds,  the  increase  is  equivalent  to  140.3  pounds 
per  acre.  If  it  is  assumed  that  all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  unin- , 
oculated  plants  was  taken  from  the  soil,  and  that  an  equiva- 
lent (piantity  of  nitrogen  in  the  inoculated  plants  was  taken 
Irom  the  soil,  then  there  is  a gain  of  140.3  pounds  of  atmos- 
l)hcric  nitrogen.  Inoculation  and  full  lime  gave  the  greatest 
yield  and  highest  (piantity  of  nitrogen.  44ie  crop  from  jars 


— 1 

l8  ^ 1 
fSj 

t. 

FKL  9.— growth  OF  CI.OVER  ON 
PLAINFIELD  SAND 

a.  Control;  b.  half  lime;  c.  full  lime, 
the  checked  columns  denote  uninocula- 
ted and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


27 


11  and  12  contained  2,719.6  milligrams  of  nitrogen  or  1,536.8 
milligrams  more  than  was  contained  in  the  control.  This  is 
the  equivalent  of  245.9  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre.  If  the 
roots  are  taken  into  consideration,  then  a maximum  increase 
of  264.9  pounds  was  obtained. 

The  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  the  tops  to  that  in  the  roots 
increases  with  the  treatment.  In  the  control  crops  the  pro- 
portion was  about  6 to  1.  In  the  crops  from  jars  11  and  12 
the  proportion  was  about  8 to  1,  a considerable  variation 


Table  IX. — Effect  of  Treatment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  Alfalfa  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Dry  Weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total  nitrogen 
due  to  treatment 

Pot 

No. 

Average 

Average 

Per  acre 

Milligrams  for 
duplicate  jars 

Per 

acre 

for  dupli- 
cate jars 

Per  acre 

for  dupli- 
cate jars 

Total 

Tops 

Tops 

and 

Roots 

Tops 

Tops 

and 

Roots 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs^ 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

2] 

Tops 

Roots.... 

34.36 

19.49 

5,497.6 

3,118.4 

1,182.8 

202.5 

189.2 

32.40 

221.6 

Tops 

Roots.... 

49.77 

18.88 

7,963.2 

3.020.8 

2,059.65 

353.25 

329.5 

56.52 

386.0 

876.8 

1,027.6 

140.3 

164.4 

^1 

Tops 

Roots... 

59.88 

15.20 

9,580.8 

2,432.0 

2,444.75 

275.25 

391.20 

44.00 

435.2 

1,261.9 

1,334.7 

202.0 

213.6 

s} 

. Tops 

Roots.... 

65.18 

16.21 

10,428.8 

2,593.6 

2,640.85 

305.2 

422.50 

48.80 

471.3 

1,458.0 

1,560.7 

233.3 

249.7 

9\ 

lOi 

Tops 

Roots.... 

61.38 

20.20 

9,820.8 

3,232.0 

2,565.95 

390.65 

410.60 

62.50 

473.1 

1,383.1 

1,571.3 

221.4 

251.5 

111 

12/ 

Tops 

Roots  . . 

67.39 

17.00 

10,782.4 

2,720.0 

2,719.60 

321.1 

435.10 

51.40 

486.5 

1,536.8 

1,655.4 

245.9 

264.9 

from  that  of  the  controls.  Figure  10  shows  very  clearly  the 
marked  beneficial  effect  of  treatment  on  crop  growth  and 
nitrogen  content. 

Nitrogen  Content  of  Alfalfa  on  Plainfield  Sand 

The  effect  of  the  treatment  on  the  total  nitrogen  and  the 
dry  matter  of  alfalfa  is  shown  in  the  data  of  Table  VI . Since 
the  crop  yield  of  the  first  cutting  was  much  lower  than  any 
of  the  others,  as  might  be  expected,  the  percentage  of  nitro- 
gen was  highest.  The  average  percentage  gain  of  all  five 
crops  inoculated,  jars  3 and  4,  was  0.49,  while  the  gain  for 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


the  inoculated  series,  full  lime,  was  0.62.  Aside  from  the 
increase  in  percentage  of  nitrogen,  inoculation  caused  an 
enormous  increase  in  total  milligrams  of  nitrogen.  As  in  the 
case  of  Colby  silt  loam,  the  gain  is  very  large,  especially  in 
the  fifth  crop,  in  the  treated  series.  The  gain  due  to  inocu- 
lation alone  amounted  to  267.9  milligrams  or  476.6  per  cent; 
inoculation  full  lime  600.5  milligrams  or  1068.5  per  cent. 
The  first  crop,  full  lime  and  inoculation,  gave  a gain  of  89.75 
milligrams  or  49.7  per  cent.  It  seems  that  the  longer  the 

lime  can  act  on  the  plant 
and  organism,  the  greater 
the  benefit  derived. 

It  is  evident  from  the 
data  in  Table  X that  treat- 
ment was  very  effective  in 
producing  not  only  much 
greater  yields,  but  also  in 
fixing  considerable  atmo- 
spheric nitrogen.  The  full 
lime  crops  from  jars  11  and 
12  weighed  over  four  times 
as  much  as  the  crops  from 
jars  1 and  2. 

Inoculation  alone  caused 
a fixation  of  511.6  milli- 
grams of  nitrogen  or  at  the 
rate  of  81.8  pounds  per  acre. 
This  rate  was  increased  to 
105.7  pounds  if  the  roots  are  taken  into  consideration.  The 
maximum  increase  was  secured  in  the  crops  grown  in  the  in- 
oculated series  with  full  lime,  jars  11  and  12,  where  a total 
increase  of  2121.0  milligrams  of  nitrogen  was  found.  This 
increase  is  at  the  rate  of  339.4  pounds  per  acre.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  practically  as  good  results  were 
obtained  from  the  half  lime  treatment  as  from  the  full  lime 
treatment.  A summary  of  the  data  in  the  previous  table  is 
given  in  Figure  11. 


PtR 

CtMT 


Fig.  10.— GROWTH  AND  NITROGEN 
FIXATION  OF  ALFALFA  ON 
COLBY  SILT  LOAM 


The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
lated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Nitrogen  Content  of  Clover  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 

A review  of  the  results  of  Table  VII  shows  that  the  per- 
cent age  of  nitrogen  varied  greatly.  In  general  the  per- 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


29 


Table  X. — Effect  of  Treatment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  Alfalfa  on  Sparta  Sand 


Dry  Weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total  nitrogen 
due  to  treatment 

Pot 

No. 

Average 
for  dupli- 

Per  acre 

Average 
for  dupli- 

Per ; 

acre 

Milligranos  for 
duplicate  jars 

Per  acre 

cate  jars 

cate  jars 

Total 

Tops 

Tops 

and 

Roots 

Tops 

Tops 

and 

Roots 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Tops 

Roots... 

14.04 

6.41 

2,246.4 

1,025.6 

463.0 

79.05 

74.1 

12.6 

86.7 

■ 

CO 

Tops 

Roots... 

27.41 

11.98 

4,385.6 

1,916.8 

974.65 

227.85 

155.9 

36.5 

192.4 

511.6 

660.5 

81.8 

105.7 

s 

Tops 

Roots.... 

57.65 

25.54 

9,224.0 

4,086.4 

2,033.55 

528.95 

325.4 

84.6 

410.0 

1,570.5 

2,020.5 

251.3 

323.3 

71 

8/ 

Tops 

Roots.... 

60.85 

21.77 

9,736.0 

3,483.2 

2,170.95 

453.70 

347.4 

72.6 

420.0 

1,707.9 

2,082.6 

273.3 

333.3 

10/ 

Tops 

Roots.... 

53.76 

23.49 

8,601.6 

3,758.4 

1,888.25 

483.20 

' 302.1 
77.3 

379.4 

1,425.2 

1,829.4 

228.0 

292.7 

12/ 

Tops 

Roots 

60.28 

23.18 

9.644.8 

3.708.8 

2,145.95 

517.05 

343.4 

82.7 

426.1 

1,682.9 

2,121.0 

269.3 

339.4 

centage  of  nitrogen  was  higher  in  the  first  crop  than  in  the 
other  two  crops.  The  treated  series  showed  only  a slight 
increase  in  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Inoculation  alone  re- 
sulted in  a gain  in  total  nitrogen  of  23.8  per  cent,  while 
inoculation  full  lime,  a gain 
of  46.0  per  cent.  These 
differences  were  found  in 
the  first  crop.  The  second 
and  third  crops  failed  to 
respond  to  inoculation.  A 
record  of  the  total  yield  of 
dry  matter  and  of  total 
nitrogen  is  presented  in 
Table  XI.  The  results  of 
the  table  are  not  in  agree- 
ment with  those  obtained 
with  alfalfa  on  Colby  silt 
loam  soil.  In  general,  in- 
oculation failed  to  increase 

crop  yield.  Apparently  fig.  ii.— growth  and  nitro- 

, gen  fixation  of  alfalfa 
Colby  soil  IS  well  supplied  on  Plainfield  sand 

AxntVi  Qp+ixrA  Lan  + oT'io  The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 

Wlin  aCTlVe  Ciover  nacteria.  lated  and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


Table  XL — Effect  of  Treatment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  Clover  on  Colby  Silt  Loam 


Pot 

Dry  weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total  nitrogen 
due  to  treatment 

No. 

Average  for 

Average  for 

duplicate 

Per  acre 

duplicate 

Per  acre 

Per  acre 

Average  for 

ja-s 

jars 

duplicate  jars 

Gms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

1 

56.57 

9,051.2 

1,998.15 

319.7 

2 

55.54 

8,886.4 

2,034.80 

325.6 

5.9 

36.7 

3 

62.91 

10,065.6 

2,279.35 

364.7 

45.0 

281.2 

4 

.59,. 55 

9,528.0 

2,246.75 

359.5 

39.8 

248.6 

5 

61.59 

9,854.4 

2,317.20 

370.7 

51.0 

319.2 

0 

64.98 

10,396.8 

2,386.45 

381.8 

62.1 

388.3 

The  addition  of  lime  caused  as  light  stimulation  in  the  growth 
of  clover.  A review  of  the  data  is  given  in  Figure  12. 

Nitrogen  Content  of  Clover  on  Plainfield  Sand 

It  is  clear  from  the  data  in  Table  VIII  that  the  highest 
percentage  of  nitrogen  is  generally  found  in  the  first  crop. 
The  percentage  gain  for  inoculation,  all  crops,  was  0.43. 
Inoculation  alone  produced  an  increased  yield  of  dry  matter 
of  74  per  cent.  Inoculation  plus  lime  gave  the  greatest  gain, 
149.3  per  cent.  Apparently  lime  and  inoculation  are  very 
beneficial  to  the  growth  of  clover  on  Plainfield  sand.  This 
is  brought  out  by  the  results  of  Table  XII.  Figure  13  also 
shows  the  benefit  of  treatment  on  the  growth  of  clover. 

It  is  clear  from  the  figures  that  treatment  was  much  more 
effective  on  the  clover  crops  grown  on  Plainfield  sand  than 
on  the  clover  crops  grown  on  Colby  silt  loam.  The  greatest 
increase  in  yield  was  obtained  from  jars  11  and  12. 


'Table  XII. — T^ffioct  of  Tre.vtment  on  Growth  and  Nitrogen  Fixa- 
tion BY  r.LOVER  on  SpARTA  AcID  SaND 


Pot 

No. 

Dry  weight 

Total  nitrogen 

Increase  in  total  nitrogen 
due  to  treatment 

Average  for 
duplicate 
jars 

Per  acre 

Average  for 
duplicate 
jars 

Per  Acre 

Per  acre 

Average  for 
duplicate  jars 

Cl  ms. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Mgm. 

1 

48.56 

7,769.6 

1,604.50 

256.7 

2 

53.87 

8,619.2 

1,945.70 

311.3 

54.6 

341.2 

3 

73.27 

11,723.2 

2,473.95 

395.8 

139.1 

869.4 

4 

76.79 

12,286.4 

2, 614. 65 

418.3 

161.6 

1,010.1 

5 

70.64 

11,302.4 

2,276.90 

364. 3 

107.6 

672.4 

6 

77.09 

12,334.4 

2,510.85 

401.7 

145.0 

906.3 

Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


31 


Inoculation  alone  in- 
creased the  amount  of  ni- 
trogen in  the  crops.  The 
increase  was  341.2  milli- 
grams per  jar  or  at  the  rate 
of  54.6  pounds  per  acre. 
The  greatest  increase  was 
secured  in  the  crops  grown 
in  jars  7 and* 8 where  1010.1 
milligrams  more  nitrogen 
were  found  than  in  the  con- 
trol crops.  This  increase 
is  at  the  rate  of  161.6  pounds 
per  acre  or  62.9  jper  cent. 
Treatment  was  therefore 
very  beneficial  in  produc- 
ing large  yields  and  in  secur- 
ing large  amounts  of  nitro- 
gen from  the  atmosphere. 


rUG.  12. — GROWTH  AND  NITRO- 
GEN FIXATION  OF  CLOVER 
ON  COLBY  SIl.T  LOAM 
The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
latcd  and  the  dacK  columns  inocnlated. 


The  Results  of  Field  Ex- 
periments FOR  1915 

Only  the  figures  for  al- 
falfa and  soy  beans  at 
Marshfield  could  be  ob- 
tained at  this  time.  The 
general  plan  of  the  field  work 
differed  somewhat  from  that 
in  the  pot  experiments. 
For  each  species  of  legume 
sixteen  plots  were  used. 
These  were  arranged  as 
follows:  control,  one  ton 

of  limestone,  three  tons, 
and  eight  tons  respectively. 
In  each  test  duplicate  plots, 
inoculated  and  uninoculated 
were  made. 

The  influence  of  treatment 
on  alfalfa  and  soy  beans  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  follow- 


CtMT 


•FIG.  13.— GROWTH  AND  NITRO- 
GEN FIXATION  OF  CLOVER 
ON  PLAINFIELD  SAND 
The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
lated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


ing  diagrams.  Figure  14  gives  the  total  yield  in  pounds 
per  acre.  The  complete  tabular  data  will  be  given  in  an 
early  report.  In  accord  with  the  results  of  greenhouse  work, 
inoculation  or  inoculation  and  lime  greatly  stimulated  the 
growth  and  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa.  The  greatest  differ- 
ence in  yield  of  dry  matter 
and  nitrogen  between  the 
inoculated  and  uninoculated 
series  alfalfa  was  found  in 
the  no  lime  group.  In  other 
words,  lime  alone  seemed 
to  partly  replace  inoculation. 

Concerning  the  amount 
of  limestone  to  add,  the 
data  indicate  that  between 
one  and  three  tons  will  give 
the  most  profitable  returns. 

When  applied  in  large 
quantities,  eight  tons  per 
acre,  there  is  a decrease  in 
yield. 

In  general,  soy  beans  re- 
sponded to  inoculation  and 
lime  in  much  the  same  way 
as  alfalfa.  Unfortunately 
one  of  the  uninoculated 
control*  plots  became  infec- 
ted with  soy  bean  bacteria, 
thus  causing  a wide  differ- 
ence between  the  controls. 

With  this  exception,  it  will 

be  seen  that  soy  beans  on  Colby  silt  loam  soil  were  greatly 
lienelited  by  inoculation.  Where  both  lime  and  inoculation 
were  used  there  was  a slight  gain  in  yield  and  total  nitro- 
gen, but  hardly  enough  to  warrant  recommending  lime  for 
soy  beans.  Liming  alone  did  not  cause  any  very  consistent 
gain.  Figures  15  shows  the  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa  and 
soy  beans. 

A review  of  the  data  of  these  two  field  tests  indicates  very 
strongly  the  beneficial  effect  of  inoculation  alone  for  soy 
beans,  and  for  alfalfa  inoculation  and  possibly  a small  appli- 
cation of  limestone. 


FIG.  14.— THE  GROWTH  OF  ALFAL- 
FA AND  SOY  BEANS  ON 
COLBY  SILT  LOAM 

The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
lated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


33 


The  Effect  of  Treatment  on  the  Nitrogen  Balance 

In  order  to  measure  the  gain  or  loss  of  nitrogen  in  culti- 
vated soil  planted  to  legumes,  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
several  factors:  (1)  the  loss  of  nitrogen  by  leaching  or  deni- 

trification; (2)  the  nitrogen  removed  by  the  crop;  (3)  the 
nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  in  seed,  water,  etc.;  (4)  the  ni- 
trogen present  in  the  soil  at  beginning  and  at  end.  Since 

a study  of  this  nature  re- 
quires a relatively  long 
period  of  time,  one  year  or 
more,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  keep  absolute  control  of 
all  the  factors.  Moreover, 
the  very  best  methods  of 
drawing  samples  of  soil  and 
plant  tissue,  as  well  as 
methods  of  determining  to- 
tal nitrogen,  are  not  accur- 
ate enough  to  detect  slight 
changes  in  the  nitrogen  sup- 
ply of  the  soil.  The  condi- 
tions of  the  previous  exper- 
iments were  carefully  con- 
trolled. All  the  soils  were 
kept  in  large  glazed  jars 
and  protected  from  rain  or  dust.  The  moisture  content 
was  held  at  about  half  saturation.  Nitrogen  determinations 
were  made  of  the  soil,  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  as 
well  as  of  the  seed,  and  dry  matter  removed.  Whenever 
roots  were  removed,  they  were  analyzed  and  their  nitrogen 
content  added  to  that  of  the  soil. 

The  balance  of  nitrogen  for  the  five  different  experiments 
is  shown  in  the  data  of  Table  XIII.  From  the  figures  of 
columns  1 and  2,  it  will  be  noted  that  in  the  majority  of  cases 
with  alfalfa  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  was  less  at  the 
end  than  at  the  beginning.  Because  of  the  large  amount  of 
tissue  removed,  this  is  not  surprising.  Apparently  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  fixed  in  the  underground  portions  of  the 
leguminous  plants  is  not  great  enough  to  compensate  for  the 
loss  due  to  the  removal  of  the  tops.  In  the  case  of  clover. 


PounDS 


FIG.  15.— THE  NITROGEN  CON- 
TENT OF  ALFALFA- AND  SOY 
BEANS  ON  COLBY  SILT 
LOAM 

The  checked  columns  denote  uninocu- 
lated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 


Table  XIII. — The  Nitrogen  Balance  in  Acid  Soils  Aftei\  Growing  Various  Legumes 


34  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


•f 


a represents  no  lime.  2 l inoculated, 

b represents  one-half  lime.  U uninoculated, 

c represents  full  lime. 


Legumes  6n  Acid  Soils 


35 


especially  clover  on  Plainfield  sand,  no  decrease  was  noted  in 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soil.  The  results  of  the  table  bring 
out  very  sharply  the  large  and  uniform  gain  in  nitrogen  in 
the  treated  series.  In  columns  6 and  7 the  increase  in  total 
nitrogen  due  to  treatment  is  recorded  in  milligrams  and 
pounds  per  acre.  The  figures  represent  the  average  differ- 
ences between  the  controls  and  the  treated  series.  From  the 
data  in  these  columns,  it  is  apparent'  that  when  the  soil  is 
treated  with  lime,  properly  inoculated  legumes  alfalfa  espec- 
ially, fix  large  quantities  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  The 
gain  in  nitrogen  due  to  treatment  was  greatest  with  alfalfa 
on  Plainfield  sand.  In  terms  of  pounds  per  acre,  the  maxi- 
mum gain  for  the  five  crops  of  alfalfa  in  sand  was  437.4 
pounds  and  for  Colby  silt  loam,  206.7  pounds.  It  is  signi- 
ficant that  inoculation  caused  an  increase  in  nitrogen  in  all 
of  the  different  crops.  Only  three  variations  were  noted — 
in  the  case  of  clover  on  Colby  silt  loam  and  clover  on  Plain- 
field  sand  a^  loss  of  nitrogen  was  found.  In  view  of  the 
marked  effect  of  a very  slight  error  in  analysis,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  there  should  be  occasional  variations.  In  a soil 
on  which  clover  has  been  grown  for  many  years,  it  is  very 
probable  that  treatment  will  have  very  little  effect.  The 
data  of  Table  XIII  are  in  accord  with  this  statement.  Clover 
inoculated  or  limed  did  not  give  any  very  great  increase  for 
treatment. 

A study  of  the  data  brings  out  many  points  of  interest. 
The  gain  in  nitrogen,  aside  from  that  in  the  tops  of  the  le- 
gumes, may  be  accounted  for  in  many  ways:  (1)  absorption 
of  nitrogen  fixed  in  the  roots  of  legumes;  (2)  free  nitrogen 
fixation;  (3)  the  addition  of  small  amounts  of  ammonia  nitro- 
gen in  the  distilled  water. 

A determination  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  treatment,  by 
subtracting  the  uninoculated  from  the  inoculated,  does  not 
give  fair  results  since  in  almost  every  case  the  legumes  were 
partly  inoculated.  While  the  figures  in  columns  6 and  7 
of  Table  XIII  represent  the  effect  of  treatment,  it  would  not 
be  correct  to  consider  these  as  the  only  gain  due  to  treat- 
ment. Apparently  the  actual  quantity  of  nitrogen  taken 
from  the  air  was  far  in  excess  of  the  figures  shown  in  these 
columns. 


POUNDS  PER  ACRE 


36 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


Source  of  Nitrogen 

Because  of  the  methods  followed,  namely,  soil  unsterilized 
and  crops  grown  under  conditions  which  did  not  entirely 


640 


560 


480 


400 


320 


240 


t60 


80 


FIG.  16.— THE  NITROGEN  GAIN  AFTER  GROWING  VARIOUS  LEGUMES 

AR.  Control;  CD.  half  lime;  EF.  full  lime.  The  checked  columns  denote  un- 
inoculated and  the  dark  columns  inoculated. 

prevent  contamination,  all  of  the  jars  were  partly  inoculated. 
In  some  cases,  natural  inoculation  was  far  greater  than  in 
others.  Apparently  inoculation  depends  to  a great  degree  on 
the  species  of  plant  as  well  as  the  soil  type.  As  a rule,  the 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


37 


Colby  silt  loam  soil  showed  a far  greater  natural  inoculation 
than  Plainfield  sand.  Likewise,  clover  showed  a far  greater 
natural  inoculation  than  alfalfa. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  controls  were  already  partly 
inoculated,  the  data  of  Table  XIII  were  arranged  to  illus- 
trate the  amount  of  nitrogen  gained  due  to  the  various  treat- 
ments. The  results  are  presented  in  Figure  16. 

The  pronounced  effect  of  treatment  on  the  source  of  nitro- 
gen is  very  clear  from  the  columns  of  the  figure.  Under 
good  conditions,  alfalfa  and  clover  apparently  will  take  by 
far  the  greater  parts  of  their  pitrogen  from  the  air. 


Summary 

The  results  of  greenhouse  studies  with  various  soils  and 
various  leguminous  plants  show  a very  striking  increase  in 
plant  growth  and  nitrogen  content  from  inoculation.  The 
addition  of  lime  in  large  or  small  quantities  exerted  a bene- 
ficial effect  on  certain  plants.  In  general,  half  enough  lime 
to  neutralize  soil  acidity  is  sufficient  for  the  production  of  a 
good  crop. 

In  the  experiments  of  1914  it  was  found  that  the  growth 
and  nitrogen  content  of  alfalfa  plants  on  Colby  silt  loam  soil 
are  greatly  increased  by  inoculation.  This  influence  \Vas 
most  noticeable  in  the  limed  series.  The  benefit  of  lime 
alone  was  much  less  pronounced  than  inoculation  alone. 

In  the  case  of  soy  beans  in  the  same  soil,  inoculation 
caused  a very  marked  increase  in  both  yield  and  quantity  of 
nitrogen.  Lime  apparently  did  not  have  any  decided  influ- 
ence on  soy  beans. 

In  the  experiments  of  1915,  Colby  silt  loam  series,  the 
increase  in  growth  and  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  inoculated 
alfalfa  far  exceeded  that  of  the  previous  year.  In  this  test 
five  cuttings  of  alfalfa  were  secured.  The  marked  response 
of  the  alfalfa  to  inoculation  is  shown  in  each  cutting.  The 
increase  in  yield,  as  compared  with  the  control,  became  more 
apparent  with  each  crop.  The  jars  which  received  both 
lime  and  inoculation  gave  the  greatest  yield  of  dry  matter. 
Here  again,  one-half  and  full  lime  failed  to  produce  any 
decided  difference.  Applications  of  lime  alone  gave  a gain 
in  plant  growth.  The  highest  percentage  of  nitrogen  usually 
occured  iii  the  smallest  crops  or  vice  versa. 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


In  the  Plainfield  sand  an  enormous  increase  was  noted 
wherever  the  proper  bacteria  were  added.  At  first  this 
treatment  did  not  increase  the  yield.  After  the  second  cut- 
ting, however,  the  plants  in  the  inoculated  jars  far  exceeded 
those  of  the  controls.  From  the  data  it  is  very  clear  that 
applications  of  legume  bacteria  are  even  more  beneficial  to 
the  growth  of  alfalfa  on  Plainfield  sand  than  on  Colby  silt 
loam.  The  statements  previously  applied  to  lime  on  Colby 
soil  also  apply  to  Plainfield  sand. 

A repetition  of  the  previous  experiments,  using  clover  on 
the  two  soil  types,  gave  diffei;ent  results.  Neither  inocula- 
tion nor  lime  showed  any  decided  influence  on  the  growth  or 
percentage  of  nitrogen  in  clover  grown  on  Colby  silt  loam. 
A slight  increase  followed  liming. 

Clover  on  Plainfield  sand  responded  to  treatment.  Inoc- 
ulation alone  caused  an  increase  in  crop  yield  and  in  total 
nitrogen.  As  compared  with  the  controls,  lime  greatly 
favored  the  growth  of  clover.  Lime  and  inoculation  gave 
the  maximum  yield  of  dry  matter  and  the  maximum  amount 
of  nitrogen.  It  was  found,  as  expected,  from  the  results  of 
the  alfalfa  experiments,  that  one-half  enough  lime  to  neutral- 
ize soil  acidity  was  most  beneficial  to  crop  growth. 

The  results  obtained  from  field  experiments  with  alfalfa 
afid  soy  beans  on  Colby  silt  loam  soil  agree  in  general  with 
those  of  the  pot  tests. 

A general  review  of  all  the  data  brings  out  two  funda- 
mental facts:  (1)  The  characteristic  effect  of  inoculation  of 
alfalfa  on  Colby  silt  loam  and  Plainfield  sand  is  an  increase 
in  plant  growth  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  fixation  of 
atmospheric  nitrogen;  (2)  small  applications  of  calcium  car- 
bonate on  acid  soils  are  far  more  economical  than  large 
applications. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


39 


PLATE  I. — EFFECT  OF  TREATMENT  ON  THE  FIRST  CROP  OF  ALFALFA 
ON  PLAINFIELD  SAND 

Jars  1 and  2 uninoculatcd ; jars  3 and  4 inoculated  plus  half  lime;  jars  5 and  G 
inoculated  plus  full  lime. 


PLATE  IL— EFFECT  OF  INOCULATIOxN  ON  THE  FIFTH  CROP  OF  AL- 
FALFA ON  PLAINFIELD  SAND  WITHOUT  LIME 

The  jar  on  the  left  uninoculated,  the  jar  on  the  right  inoculated  with  a culture  of 
alfalfa  bacteria. 


40 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


PLATE  III  — EFFECT  OF  INOCULATION  ON  THE  ROOTS  OF  ALFALFA 
IN  PLAINFIELD  SAND  WITHOUT  LIME 

The  roots  (1)  from  uninoculated  alfalfa;  the  roots  (2)  from 
inoculated  alfalfa. 


PLAl  h:  IV.  i:ffect  of  treatment  on  the  first  crop  of  red 

CLOVER  ON  PLAINFIELD  SAND 

Jars  1 and  2 uninoculated;  jars  3 and  4 inoculated  plus  half  lime;  jars  5 and  6 
inoculated  plus  full  lime. 


Legumes  on  Acid  Soils 


41 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

(8) 

(9) 

flO) 

(11) 


(12) 


ns) 

14) 


LITERATURE  CITED 


Alway,  F.  J. 

1910.'  The  Nitrogen  Content  of  Inoculated  and  Uninoculated 
Nebr.  ,\gr.  Exp.  Sta.  2.'5d  Ann.  Rpt., 
pp.  33-34.  ^ 


Arny,  A.  G.  and  Thatcher,  R.  \V. 

1915.  The  effect  of  Different  Methods  of  Inoculation  on  Yield  and 
Protein  Content  of  Alfalfa,  and  Sweet  Clover,  Jour  \m 
Soc.  Agron.,  V.  7,  pp.  172-185. 

Atwater,  W.  0.  and  Woods,  C.  D. 

1889-90.  The  Acquisition  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen  bv  Plants 
Storrs  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.,  pp.  11-51. 

Duggar,  J.  F. 

189.L  Soil  Inoculation  for  Leguminous  Plants.  Ala  \er  Fxn 
Sta.  Bui.  87,  pp.  459-488.  ’ 


1898.  Experiments  with  Crimson  Clover  and  Hairv  Vetch 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  96,  pp.  183-208. 

Duggar,  J.  F.  and  Funchess,  M.  J. 

1911.  Lime  for  Alabama  .Soils.  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  101,  pp. 
Frear,  W. 

1915.  Sour  Soils  and  Liming.  Pa.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  261,  p.  177. 
Hartwell,  B.  L.  and  Pember,  F.  R. 

1911.  The  Gam  m Nitrogen  During  a Five  Year  Pot  Experiment 
with  Different  Legume's.  R.  I.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  147 
pp.  4-14. 

Hopkins,  C.  G. 

1903.  Alfaffa^on  Illinois  Soil.  III.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  76,  pp. 


1903.  Soil  Treatment  for  Wheat  in  Rotation  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Southern  Illinois  Soils.  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
o8,  pp.  113-143. 


"^'i;  A-."'-’  Owen,  I.  L.,  and  .McLean,  C.  IL 

1915.  Miscellaneous  \ egetation  Experiments.  N.  J.  Aer.  Exd 
Sta.  Bui.  250,  pp.  6-8.  * ’ 

1914.  Factors  Influencing  the  Protein  Content  of  Sov  Beans  N 
J.*Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  282,  pp.  5-14. 


Lipman,  J.  G.,  Blair,  A.  W.,  McLean,  H.  C.,  and  Wilkins,  L.  K. 
1514.  the  Influence  of  Lime  on  the  Yield  of  Dry  Matter  and 

236-238^pf  1^  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.,  pp. 


Lipman,  J.  G.  and  Blair,  A.  W. 

1916.  Cylinder  Experiments  Relative  to  the  Utilization  and  Accu- 
muHtion  of  Nitrogen.  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  289,  pp. 

Morse,  F.  W. 

191o.  The  Effect  on  a Crop  of  Clover  of  Liming  the  Soil.  Mass 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  161,  pp.  119-124.  " 


42 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  39 


(15)  Nobbe,  F.  and  Richter,  L. 

1903.  i)ber  den  Einfluss  des  im  Kulturboden  Vorhandenen 
Assimilierbaren  Stickstoffs  auf  die  Aktion  der  Knollchen- 
bakterien.  Landw.  Vers.  Stat.  Bd.  59,  pp.  167-174. 

(16)  Scales,  F.  M. 

1915.  Relation  of  Lime  to  Production  of  Nitrates  and  Mineral 

Nitrogen.  Science,  n.  ser.,  voL,  42,  No.  1079,  p.  317. 

(17)  Shutt,  F.  T. 

1909.  Nitrogen  Enrichment  of  Soils  Through  the  Growth  of 
Legumes.  Ann.  Rpt.  Exp.  Farms,  Dom.  Canada,  p.  159. 

(18)  Truog,  E. 

1916.  A New  Apparatus  for  the  Determination  of  Soil  Carbonates 

and  New  Methods  for  the  Determination  of  Soil  Acidity. 
.Jour.  Ind.  Eng.  Chem.,  V.  8,  No.  4,  pp.  341-345. 

(19)  Smith,  C.  D.  and  Robison,  F.  W. 

1905.  Influence  of  Nodules  on  the  Roots  Upon  the  Composition 
of  Soy  Reans  and  Cowpeas.  Mich.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rul. 
224,  pp.  127-132. 

(20)  Veitch,  F.  P. 

1905.  Summary  of  Experiments  on  the  Relation  of  Soil  Acidity  to 
F'ertility.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  of  Chem.  Bui.  90,  p.  186. 

(21)  Warington,  R. 

1891.  The  Circumstances  which  Determine  the  Rise  and  Fall  o^ 
Nitrogenous  Matter  in  the  Soil.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  0.  E.  S.7 
Bui.  8,  pp.  22-41. 


Research  Bulletin  40 


October,'  1016 


Some  Economic  Factors  Which 
Influence  Rural  Education 
in  Wisconsin 


EUGENE  MERRITT  AND  K.  L.  HATCH 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN  IN  CO- 
OPERATION WITH  THE  STATES 
RELATION  SERVICE.  UNITED 
STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICULTURE 


MADISON.  WISCONSIN 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Summaij 1 

Conclusions..... 1 

Part  I. — Relationships  between  rural  economics  and  education 

Decline  in  rural  population 3 

Land  in  farms 5 

Are  we  developing  a land  monopoly? 11 

Rural  population.^. 11 

Native  stock  increasing 12 

Excess  of  males  in  rural  districts 13 

Boys  and  girls  leaving  the  rural  districts 13 

Changes  and  results  in  composition  of  rural  population 14 

Relation  between  rural  population  and  number  of  farms 18 

Land  tenure  in  Wisconsin  and  its  relation  to  rural  education 19 

Small  rural  schools 21 

The  rural  school  teacher 25 

Part  II. — study  of  Iowa  county 

Basis  for  comparison 27 

Families  of  native  and  foreign  born  compared 28 

Relation  between  tenure,  size  of  family,  and  size  of  farm 28 

School  attendance  in  Iowa  county 29 

Small  schools  and  their  cost 30 

Influence  of  high  schools  on  rural  school  attendance 30 

High  schools  for  rural  children 32 

What  becomes  of  the  farm  boy  and  girl? 33 

Gap  between  finishing  of  education  and  beginning  of  farming 35 

The  farmer  and  his  education 36 

Sources  of  incentive 36 

Influence  of  the  short  course 39 

The  education  of  the  farmer’s  children  and  the  farmer’s  wife 39 

Influence  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools 40 

Suggested  improvements 41 

Education  and  land  ownership 42 

The  cash  value  of  the  farmer’s  education 43 

Labor  income;  what  it  is  and  what  it  indicates a 44 

Evidence  not  conclusive i 45 

Part  III. — Types  of  agricultural  schools  in  Wisconsin 

Ideals 46 

Curriculum 46 

Distribution  of  students 47 

Cost  of  instruction 49 

Higher  cost  of  agricultural  instruction... 51 


Some  Economic  Factors  Which  Influence  Rural 
Education  in  Wisconsin 

Summary 


This  study  shows  that; — 

I.  The  average  size  of  farms  in  the  developed  portion  of  Wisconsin  is 
gradually  increasing. 

II.  The  average  size  of  the  farm  family  is  gradually  decreasing. 

III.  The  average  enrollment  in  the  one  room  rural  school  is  consequently 

decreasing, 

IV.  The  rural  school  of  less  than  20  pupils  is  economically  inefficient 

on  account  of  high  cost  per  pupil. 

' V.  Aside  from  the  one  room  rural  schools,  state  graded  and  high  schools 
can  most  economically  and  most  completely  meet  the  needs  of 
rural  education. 

Conclusions 

I.  Under  present  economic  tendencies  the  country  school  district 
should  contain  at  least  six  sections  of  land  in  compact  form. 

1.  Because  the  average  Wisconsin  farm  contains  about  120 

acres. 

2.  Because  the  average  number  of  children  per  farm  between 

6 and  14  years  of  age  is  but  one. 


FIG.  1.— A POSSIBLE  IDEAL* 

Why  not  a school  district  of  this  size  and  shape,  composed  of  four  sections  and 
four  half-sections  of  land? 

3.  Because  a district  of  six  square  miles  area  contains  but 
32  farms  of  average  size  and  hence  but  little  more  than 
30  pupils  likely  to  attend  school. 

II.  The  further  reduction  in  area  of  rural  school  districts  below  3840 
acres  should  be  prohibited. 

* This  unit,  which  in  many  cases  will  prove  impracticable,  may  well  serve  as  the  ideal  in  the  reorganization 
of  districts  in  a considerable  portion  of  the  state,  particularly  in  the  northern  section. 


2 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


III.  Under  ideal  conditions  of  roads  and  topography  the  rural  school 

district  should  be  of  the  shape  indicated. 

1.  Because  such  a district  contains  six  sections  of  land  in  the 

most  compact  form. 

2.  Because  with  the  school  house  located  at  the  center,  the 

most  remote  portions  of  the  district  are  within  two 
miles  from  school. 

IV.  The  opportunity  of  state  graded  and  high  schools,  better  to  serve 

the  cause  of  rural  education,  lies  in  providing  adequate  trans- 
portation facilities  and  in  adapting  their  curricula  to  the  needs 
of  country  life.  Such  courses  of  study  necessarily  include  agri- 
culture and  domestic  economy. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


3 


PART  L— RELATIONSHIPS  BETWEEN  RURAL 
ECONOMICS  AND  EDUCATION 

Eugene  Merritt  and  K.  L.  Hatch 

While  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  rural  schools  are 
limited  in  scope  and  controlled  and  directed  in  activity  by 
the  economic  forces  operative  in  the  country,  no  graphic 
picture  of  these  conditions  has  yet  been  presented. 

This  bulletin  attempts  to  disclose  some  of  these  relation- 
ships. Emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  following  factors: 

I. — The  rise  in  land  values, 

II. — ^Changes  in  the  size  of  farms, 

HI. — The  movement  of  rural  population, 

IV. — Changes  in  the  size  of  farm  families, 

V. — Changes  in  the  composition  of  rural  population, 

VI. — Changes  in  land  tenure,  with  their  resultant  effects 
upon  the  quality  and  kind  of  rural  education. 

While  economic  factors  have  received  primary  considera- 
tion the  influence  of  so-called  “social  forces”  has  not  been 
ignored. 

It  is  believed  that  a knowledge  of  the  above  factors  is 
necessary  to  the  highest  future  development  of  rural  schools. 

Field  studies  in  Iowa  and  Walworth  counties,  the  ques- 
tionnaire method,  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Census, 
the  original  returns  of  the  census  enumerators,  and  the  re- 
ports on  file  in  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction  were  used  as  material  for  this  study. 

The  Decline  in  Rural  Population 

In  recent  years  considerable  anxiety  has  been  expressed 
because  of  the  decrease  iti  the  rural  population  in  certain 
parts  of  the  United  States.  This  decrease  has  been  most 
noticeable  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  states, 
that  is,  in  sections  where  the  land  values  are  comparatively 
high.  Decreasing  rural  population  and  rising  land  values^ 
seem  to  be  associated,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  maps. 
If  a further  examination  be  made,  it  is  found  that  in  practic- 
ally the  same  areas  there  has  been  a decrease  in  the  total 
number  of  farms. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


FIG.  2.— DECREASE  IN  RURAL  POPULATION 


Regions  where  rural  population  is  on  the  rapid  decline  are  shown  by  numerous  dots. 

Note  association  with  high  land  values. 

If  one  examines  into  the  conditions  surrounding  agricul- 
ture and  the  movement  of  rural  population  in  Wisconsin,  as 
revealed  by  returns  to  the  Bureau  of  Census,  it  may  be 
possible  to  find  an  explanation  for  these  phenomena. 


FIG.  3.— REGIONS  OF  HIGH  LAND  VALUES 

Regions  where  land  values  are  high  are  shown  by  numerous  dots.  In  this  same 
area  tenantry  is  on  the  increase. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


5 


Land  in  Farms 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  southern  portion  of  the 
state  of  Wisconsin  was  developed  much  earlier  than  the 
northern  portion.  Indeed,  many  of  the  northern  counties 
have  at  present  but  a small  percentage  of  the  total  land 


fig.  4.— WISCONSIN’S  AGRICULTURE  BUT  PARTIALLY  DEVELOPED 

This  map  shows  three  well  defined  areas  in  Wisconsin  which  are  made  the  basis  of 
several  distinct  classifications,  used  in  this  publication. 


area  in  farms.  If  a line  is  drawn  across  the  state  from  the 
southern  portion  of  Polk  county,  swinging  south  to  Juneau 
and  Adams  and  north  again  to  Brown,  thus  dividing  the 
state  into  two  portions,  all  the  counties  to  the  south  of  this 
line  will  be  found  to  have  more  than  80  per  cent  of  their 
land  in  farms.  In  most  of  the  territory  north  of  this  line 
less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  land  is  in  farms. 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


Since  it  is  necessary  to  make  frequent  reference  to  the 
above  areas,  that  portion  of  the  state  to  the  north  of  this 
division  line  has  been  briefly  designated  the  northern  sec- 
tion and  that  lying  south  of  it  the  southern  section.  Those 
counties  immediately  bordering  on  this  line  constitute 
another  belt  which  will  hereafter  be  referred  to  as  the 
central  section. 

Improved  Land  in  Farms 


In  the  southern  section  the  greater  portion  of  the  land^in 
farms  is  improved,  whereas  in  the'  northern  section  butja 
small  percentage  of  the  land  in  farms  is  improved. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


7 


AVERAGE  SIZE  OF  FARMS 

By  noting  sizes  of  farms  in  different  regions  and  using 
the  total  land  area  as  a basis,  one  finds  that  no  one  type 
predominates  in  any  particular  region,  except  that  in  a gen- 
eral way  the  counties  in  the  western  half  of  the  southern 
section  have  larger  farms  than  those  in  the  eastern  half  of 


FIG.  6. — WHERE  FARMS  ARE  RELATIVELY  SMALL 

In  over  half  of  the  state  the  cultivated  area  per  farm  is  relatively  small.  In  the 
shaded  counties,  this  averages  less  than  6.5  acres  per  farm;  much  less  in  the  extreme 
northern  section.  (Census  1910). 

this  same  area.  Using  the  average  acreage  of  improved  land 
per  farm  as  a basis,  the  counties  of  the  northern  section 
are  found  to  have  less  than  50  acres  of  improved  land  per 
farm,  whereas  the  counties  of  the  southern  section  have  on 
the  average  more  than  80  acres  of  improved  land  per  farm. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


CHANGES  IN  NUMBER  AND  SIZE  OF  FARMS 

Increase  and  decrease  in  number  of  farms  are  confined  to 
definite  areas.  The  number  of  farms  in  1910  had  increased 
over  the  number  in  1900  in  practically  all  of  the  counties 
in  the  northern  section,  while  in  the  southern  section  the 
number  of  farms  had  decreased.  In  this  southern  section, 


FIG.  7.— INCREASE  CONFINED  PRINCIPALLY  TO  NORTHERN 

COUNTIES 

The  disappearance  of  many  of  the  smaller  sized  farms  throughout  the  southern 
section  of  the  state  from  1900  to  1910  has  had  the  effect  of  decreasing  the  total 
number  of  farms  in  this  same  area.  Only  shaded  counties  show  an  increase. 

farms  of  from  10  to  19  acres  had  increased  in  number  in 
both  decades,  between  1890  and  1900,  and  between  1900 
and  1910;  yet  the  farms  of  from  20  to  49  acres  had  decreased 
in  all  counties  in  this  area.  Between  1890  and  1900,  this 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


9 


line  of  division  was  farther  south,  yet  there  was,  even  at 
that  time,  a large  number  of  southern  counties  in  which 
farms  of  20  to  49  acres  had  decreased  in  number.  Farms 
of  50  to  99  acres  showed  a similar  tendency  in  the  southern 
area.  The  number  of  farms  of  between  100  and  174  acres 
decreased  in  only  a few  localities.  One  of  these  areas  com- 


FIG.  8.— THE  small  FARM  UNPOPULAR 

The  “forty  acre  farm”  is  popular  with  the  pioneer  but  such  farms  rapidly  disappear 
as  agricultural  conditions  improve.  (Census  1900—1910). 


prised  the  counties  of  Buffalo,  Trempealeau,  Jackson  and 
La  Crosse;  another,  Juneau,  Adams,  Marquette  and  Green; 
and  a third,  Crawford,  Grant,  Iowa  and  La  Fayette.  For 
the  remainder  of  the  state,  farms  of  this  type  have  increased 
in  numbers  in  the  last  10  years. 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


As  the  size  increases  above  175  acres,  the  number  of  farms 
in  each  class  appears  to  be  decreasing.  Farms  of  between 
175  and  259  acres  seem  to  be  decreasing,  however,  in  an 
entirely  different  region  from  those  of  the  smaller  groups. 
This  region  consists  principally  of  the  counties  bordering  on 
or  near  the  lake. 


With  the  further  advance  in  agriculture  the  “eighty  acre  farm”  has  followed  the 
“forty”  as  shown  by  the  above  map  based  on  the  census  of  1910. 


Farms  of  between  260  and  499  acres  decreased  in  the  areas 
mentioned  above  and  in  the  counties  bordering  directly  on 
them.  Farms  of  over  500  acres  have  decreased  in  number  in 
all  counties  of  the  southern  section. 

The  highest  percentage  of  farms  of  between  20  and  99 
acres  is  located  in  the  northern  section,  or  more  recently 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


11 


settled  portions  of  the  state,  while  the  smaller  percentages 
of  farms  of  this  size  are  found  in  those  counties  which  were 
settled  first.  In  1880  (the  first  year  in  which  the  census 
noted  size  of  farms)  the  largest  number  of  farms  of  this  size 
was  found  in  the  southern  counties.,  With  each  succeeding 
decade  this  type  of  farm  has  moved  gradually  northward 
until  it  is  now  found  in  greatest  proportionate  numbers  in 
the  counties  in  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  the  state. 

Another  peculiar  fact  to  be  noted  from  the  census  of  1910 
is  that  the  number  of  farms  of  10  to  19  acres  has  increased 
throughout  the  entire  state. 

Are  We  Developing  a Land  Monopoly? 

It  seems  that  farms  of  between  20  and  99  acres  are  being 
eliminated  in  southern  Wisconsin.  If  this  indicated  a land 
monopoly  the  result  would  be  that  farms  of  more  than  500 
acres  would  be  increasing,  but  as  a matter  of  fact  this  type 
also  declined  in  practically  all  counties  of  the  state  in  the 
last  census  decade,  and  in  many  counties  farms  of  260  to  499 
acres  also  decreased  in  numbers.  In  these  southern  counties 
the  number  of  very  small  farms  has  increased.  Several  of 
the  counties  in  which  the  total  number  of  farms  has  de- 
creased show  an  increase  both  in  total  farm  land  and  in 
improved  land.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  to  increase  the 
number  of  very  small  and  medium-sized  farms  at  the  ex- 
pense of  many  comparatively  small  and  a few  very  large 
farms,  with  the  result  that  in  the  older  settled  counties  the 
total  number  of  farms  has  decreased. 

Similar  tendencies  in  Iowa,  Illinois  and  Indiana  have  been 
observed  by  others. 

Rural  Population 

In  Wisconsin  in  1890  there  were  four  persons  living  in 
rural  districts  to  two  in  urban,  but  in  1910  there  were  four 
living  in  rural  districts  to  three  in  urban.  The  increase  in 
rural  population  between  1890  and  1900  was  1'3  per  cent, 
and  between  1900  and  1910,  5.7  per  cent  while  that  in  urban 
was  40.6  per  cent  and  27.1  per  cent  respectively  for  the  same 
periods.  The  increase  in  rural  population  for  the  state  as  a 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


whole  is  largely  due  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  northern 
section,  as  the  accompanying  map  will  show. 


This  map  shows  the  actual  increase  or  decrease  in  rural  population  in  Wisconsin 
between  1900  and  1910  by  counties.  Cities  and  villages  of  less  than  one  thousand 
population  are  counted  as  rural.  Light  face  type  shows  decrease,  bold  face,  in- 
crease. 

Native  Stock  Increasing 

Analyzing  the  rural  population  as  to  place  of  birth,  we 
find  that  the  number  of  those  foreign-born  had  actually  de- 
creased between  1890  and  1910,  whereas  those  of  mixed  or 
foreign  parentage  but  native  born  had  increased  slightly 
over  20  per  cent,  the  increase  for  the  last  10  years  being 
very  small.  The  largest  percentage  of  increase,  however, 
was  in  those  of  native  parentage;  between  1890  and  1900 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


13 


the  increase  was  about  26  per  cent,  and  between  1890  and 
1910,  53  per  cent.  Thus  we  see  that  foreign  immigrants  are 
not  now  coming  into  the  rural  districts  in  such  great  numbers 
as  they  formerly  did,  and  that  the  percentage  of  native  born 
rural  population  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Excess  of  Males  in  Rural  Districts 

If  we  examine  the  statistics  showing  the  proportion  of 
males  to  females,  we  find  that  there  is  an  excess  of  males 
in  the  state,  and  that  this  excess  was  larger  in  1910  than  in 
1900. 

The  excess  of  males  in  1910  was: 

8,500  in  urban  districts,  and 
74,800  in  rural  districts. 

When  the  native  whites  are  considered  by  themselves  we 
find  that  there  are: 

24,200  more  females  than  males  in  urban  districts,  but 
38,500  less  females  than  males  in  rural  districts, 

or  in  other  words,  there  are  more  native  women  in  proportion 
to  men  in  cities  than  in  the  country.  For  the  foreign  born, 
the  excess  of  males  is  larger  in  the  country  than  in  the  city. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  girls  are  leaving  the  rural 
districts  faster  than  are  the  boys. 


Roys  and  Girls  Leaving  Rural  Districts 

Migration  by  age  groups: — If  one  analyzes  the  popula- 
tion by  age  groups,  it  is  found: 

1.  — That  for  each  age  group  there  are  more  males  than  females 
living  in  rural  districts. 

2.  — The  next  striking  fact  is  that  there  is  a higher  percentage 
of  children  living  in  rural  districts  between  5 and  9 years  of  age 
than  under  5 years  of  age. 

3.  — ^The  proportion  of  both  males  and  females  living  in  rural 
districts  decreases  until  the  minimum  is  reached  for  both  sexes  in 
the  ages  of  25  and  34. 

4.  — In  the  age  groups  following  this,  the  percentage  living 
in  rural  districts  begins  to  increase,  the  largest  percentage  for 
any  age  occurring  in  the  group  of  65  years  or  over.  The  same 
tacts  are  true  for  both  males  and  females  except  that  the  per- 
centage for  the  females  decreases  more  rapidly  than  that  for  the 
males. 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


The  probable  explanations  for  these  variations  are: 

1.  — The  death  rate  among  children  is  greater  in  the  city  than 
in  the  rural  districts,  so  that  an  increased  percentage  survives 
in  the  country.  This  accounts  for  the  increase  in  the  second 
groups,  5 to  9 years. 

2.  — Beginning  with  the  age  group  10  to  14  years,  the  children, 
for  various  reasons,  migrate  to  cities  and  this  migration  continues 
until  the  ages  of  25  to  34  are  reached. 

3.  — At  35  years  of  age  the  migration  from  rural  districts 
practically  ceases.  The  higher  death  rate,  age  for  age,  in  the 
urban  than  in  the  rural  districts  accounts  for  the  fact  that  a 
larger  percentage  of  those  in  rural  districts  survive.  That  there 
is  a return  migration  is  also  probable,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
women  between  20  and  30  years  of  age. 


The  Apparent  Reason  for  this  Migration 

Why  should  there  be  migration  from  the  rural  to  the 
urban  districts?  Apparently  it  is  simply  a readjustment  of 
the  labor  supply.  In  the  first  place  the  birth  rate  in  the  rural 
districts  for  persons  of  the  same  nativity  is  higher  than  that 
in  the  urban  districts.  For  this  reason,  the  labor  supply  of 
the  country  increases  faster  than  it  does  in  the  city.  On 
account  of  numerous  changes  in  our  systems  of  agriculture 
less  labor  is  required  to  produce  the  same  amount  of  crops; 
consequently  at  certain  times  of  the  year  the  rural  districts 
.have  an  excess  of  labor.  Industries,  giving  continuous  profit- 
able employment  to  labor  in  the  cities,  are  increasing  so 
rapidly  that  the  city  is  not  only  dependent  upon  the  country 
for  its  food  supply,  but  also,  for  men  and  women  to  carry 
on  its  increasing  activities.  The  excess  of  labor  in  the 
rural  districts  migrates  to  the  city  to  find  employment. 
The  desire  of  young  people  to  find  employment  in  cities 
should  not  be  aroused  by  a system  of  education  which 
exalts  city  life  at  the  expense  of  the  country. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  RURAL  POPULATION 

The  changes  in  rural  population  in  Wisconsin  are^  very 
significant.  There  has  been  a marked  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber of  foreign  born.  The  average  size  of  the  families  of  the 
foreign  born  parents  is  larger  than  that  of  the  native  born 
parents.  Hence  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  foreign  born 
in  the  rural  districts  tends  to  decrease  the  size  of  the  family 
and  the  number  of  children  that  need  schools.  The  effect 
of  this  change  upon  the  community  social  life  is  also  very 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


15 


FIG.  11.— THE  CITY  CLAIMS  MEN  AND  WOMEN  IN  THEIR  PRIME 


Solid  black  lines  represent  females;  shaded  lines,  males.  The  chart  shows 
distribution  of  population  in  Wisconsin  by  age  groups,  between  city  and  country. 
Marriage  apparently  influences  this  distribution  very  materially  among  women. 


16 


Wisconsin  Research'  Bulletin  40 


important  but  will  not  be  discussed  here.  As  population 
increases,  land  values  rise  and  it  becomes  more  difficult  for 
the  immigrant  to  get  possession  of  a farm..  We  may  expect, 
therefore,  that  the  number  of  foreign  born  in  the  rural  com- 
munities will  continue  to  decline. 


SOME  IMPORTANT  RESULTS  OF  RURAL  MIGRATION 

1.  — As  soon  as  the  boys  become  old  enough  to  earn  an  inde- 
pendent living  wage,  some  of  them  leave  the  home  farm  to  go 
to  the  city.  Many  of  them,  however,  find  employment,  either 
on  the  home  farm  or  on  some  other  farm,  and  remain  as  laborers 
in  the  country, 

2.  — On  the  other  hand,  very  few  girls  become  wage  earners  in 
rural  communities.  Tn  recent  years,  many  urban  occupations 
have  been  opened  to  girls  and  they  are  migrating  to  the  city  to 
earn  an  independent  living  until  they  marry. 

3.  — There  are  many  young  men,  foreigners,  employed  on  the 
farms  as  laborers.  They  work  on  the  farm  long  enough  to  learn 
the  best  farm  practices  here  and  perhaps  to  accumulate  capital 
with  which  to  begin  independent  farm  operations. 

4.  — Most  farm  laborers,  whether  native  or  foreign  born,  are 
unmarried  and  remain  so  until  they  become  independent  farm 
operators  or  become  established  in  some  other  occupation. 


These  facts  account  for  the  excess  of  males  in  rural  dis- 
tricts. 

As  the  amount  of  capital  necessary  to  begin  farming,  and 
the  time  required  to  accumulate  it  increases,  marriage  will 
be  delayed.  The  possibility  of  being  self-supporting  also 
causes  girls  to  be  more  independent  about  marriage  and 
tends  to  postpone  the  time  of  marriage.  The  result  of  later 
marriage  is  smaller  families  and  fewer  children  in  ruial 
schools. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  size  of  the  family  declines,  in  order 
to  maintain  the  present  rural  population  there  must  be  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  farm  families.  As  long  as  we  con- 
tinue the  present  order  of  one  family  on  one  farm,  an  in- 
creased number  of  families  in  a settled  district  will  require  a 
subdivision  of  farms.  An  alternative  method  of  increasing 
the  number  of  families  is  the  employment  of  a larger  number 
of  married  laborers  on  the  farms. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


17 


Table  I. — Per  Cent  of  Total  Population  of  Same  Age  and  Sex 
Living  in  Rural  Districts:  Census  1910 


Age  period 

Total 

Native  white 

Foreig 

[n-born 

lite 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Under  5 years 

60.6 

60.2 

60.7 

60.3 

34.1 

37.0 

5 to  9 years 

62.5 

61.7 

63.2 

62.3 

35.0 

36.2 

10  to  14  years 

61.9 

60.7 

62.4 

61.2 

43.4 

41.6 

15  to  19  years 

59.7 

55.5 

61 .0 

56.4 

40.8 

36.6 

20  to  24  years 

54.0 

40.6 

57.7 

51.6 

36.9 

33.2 

25  to  34  years 

51 .4 

50.2 

56.4 

52.8 

38.7 

40.6 

35  to  44  years 

54.9 

52.8 

59.4 

54.9 

47.1 

47.9 

45  to  64  years 

59.2 

55.3 

62.0 

55.8 

56.4 

54.4 

65  years  and  over 

65.6 

59.4 

67.2 

59.0 

64.8 

59.3 

All  ages 

58.1 

55.8 

60.4 

57.1 

50.3 

49.6 

We  have  noted  that  in  the  southern  section  there  has 
been  a decrease  in  the  number  of  farms.  But  how  long  may 
we  expect  this  tendency  to  continue?  Certainly  not  in- 
definitely. If  we  turn  to  Europe  for  a suggestion  as  to  the 
future,  we  are  led  to  contemplate  the  possibility  of  a sub- 
division of  farms  and  consequently  an  increase  in  number. 
The  possibility  of  changes  in  types  of  farming  and  in  farm 
organization  makes  any  definite  prediction  impossible. 

Suppose  we  have  reached  the  point  where  the  number  of 
farms  is  to  remain  stationary?  In  the  case  of  each  family 
there  is  the  one  farm  for  one  son  and  a daughter  of  another 
farmer  say,  or  vice  versa,  hence  other  children  must  go 
elsewhere  or  become  farm  laborers.  By  increasing  the  in- 
tensity of  culture  more  laborers  are  employed  on  the  farms. 
Any  increase  in  rural  population  beyond  what  is  necessary 
to  meet  the  farm  demand  is  a surplus  labor  supply  for  the 
industrial  centers.  Or  shall  we  suppose  there  is  to  be  a 
subdivision  of  holdings?  More  children  will  find  permanent 
employment  on  farms  and  the  city  migration  will  be  reduced 
correspondingly. 

However,  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  all 
countries  as  far  back  as  there  is  definite  information,  there 
has  been  a constant  flow  of  people  from  the  rural  districts 
to  the  cities  so  that  whatever  change  may  take  place  in  the 
type  of  farming  or  of  the  farm  family,  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  movement  of  the  people  from  the  rural  districts 
will  continue  in  the  future  as  in  the  past. 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


In  any  event,  it  will  be  the  problem  of  the  rural  school 
of  the  future,  as  it  is  at  present,  to  furnish  the  primary 
education  for  both  those  who  are  to  remain  in  the  rural 
communities  and  those  who  are  to  go  to  the  city. 

The  Relation  Between  Rural  Population  and  the 
Number  of  Farms 

All  counties  of  the  northern  section  of  the  state  show  an 
increase  in  rural  population,  whereas  nearly  all  the  counties 
of  the  southern  section  show  a decrease.  If  cities  and  villages 
of  less  than  2500  are  excluded  from  the  rural  population,  the 


Only  those  townships  having  an  increase  in  rural  population  during  the  period 
of  1900  to  1910  are  shaded.  All  others  show  a decrease.  In  the  southern  section 
of  the  stale  practically  all  the  increase  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  larger 
towns. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


19 


only  counties  south  of  the  dividing  line  previously  mentioned, 
which  show  a slight  increase  are  Racine,  Kenosha,  Mar- 
quette, Waushara,  Dane,  Milwaukee,  Waukesha  (See  Fig. 
10,  p.  12)  and  Manitowoc.  All  the  other  counties  of  the 
southern  section  show  a decrease  in  rural  population.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  counties  showing  a decrease  in  the 
total  number  of  farms  lie  in  this  same  area. 

By  comparing  the  increases  and  decreases  in  the  number 
of  farms  with  the  increases  and  decreases  in  the  rural  popu- 
lation, one  finds  that  there  is  no  uniformity  in  their  relation- 
ship. An  increase  in  the  number  of  farms  is  not  necessarily 
accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  total  population,  but  a 
decrease  in  the  number  of  farms  is  generally  accompanied  by 
a decrease  in  the  rural  population.  In  some  instances,  how- 
ever, there  was  an  actual  increase  in  rural  population  and  a 
decrease  in  the  number  of  farms. 

Land  Tenure  in  Wisconsin 

It  is  a striking  coincidence  that  the  line  which  divides  the 
state  with  respect  to  population  and  size  of  farms  also 
divides  the  state  with  respect  to  ownership.  In  the  northern 
section  are  located  the  counties  having  10  per  cent  or  less 
\ of  tenants,  whereas  those  counties  to  the  south  have  a 
1 higher  percentage,  the  highest  percentage  occurring  in  the 
! counties  along  the  southern  border.  In  the  last  mentioned 
area,  ownership  has  been  decreasing  in  all  counties  except 
Sheboygan,  Rock,  Racine,  and  Kenosha.  The  number  of 
tenants  is  increasing  in  all  the  counties  of  the  state,  excepting 

Brown,  Columbia,  Dane,  Door,  Dunn,  Fond  du  Lac,  Juneau, 
Manitowoc,  Outagamie,  Pepin,  Portage,  Racine,  Rock,  Sheboy- 
gan, Washington,  and  Waukesha. 

The  Relation  of  Rural  Education  to  Land  Tenure 

The  support  which  the  rural  school  receives  depends  in  a 
large  measure  upon  the  ideals  and  economic  conditions  of 
its  patrons.  We  should  not  expect  an  ever  shifting  popula- 
tion to  have  the  same  interest  in  a school  as  permanent 
residents.  Permanency  of  residence  is  affected  by  the  tenure 
of  land. 

Farms  are  held  by  tenants  under  two  different  conditions 
and  these  conditions  affect  the  permanency  of  tenure. 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


1.  — The  tenant  who  is  related  to  the  owner  and  who  will 
probably  own  the  farm  in  course  of  time,  or  the  one  who  has 
permanent  interest  in  the  community  through  long  time 
tenure. 

2.  — The  tenant  who  has  no  permanent  interest  in  com- 
mon with  either  the  owner  or  the  community. 

The  interest  of  the  former  in  the  schools  is  the  same  as 
that  of  a permanent  resident  or  future  property  holder. 
The  latter  presents  a more  serious  rural  problem. 

, The  data  given  for  Iowa  county,  suggests  that  the  num- 
ber of  tenants  who  are  related  to  the  owner  of  the  farm  which 
they  operate  may  be  very  large.  This  data  does  not  separate 
the  number  of  tenants  who  are  related  to  the  owner  through 
marriage  from  those  who  are  not  related.  It  seems  probable, 
in  most  cases  in  which  the  tenant  and  the  owner  of  the 
farm  have  the  same  name,  that  they  are  related,  and  that 
in  many  cases  where  the  tenant  has  a different  name,  he 
is  related  through  marriage.  The  table  also  shows  that 
some*  of  the  tenants  have  occupied  their  present  holdings 
for  ten  years  or  over  and  are  still  operating  them. 

A customary  long  time  tenure,  together  with  the  hope  of 
purchasing  a farm  in  the  same  community  when  sufficient 
capital  has  been  accumulated,  will  tend  to  modify  the 
effect  of  an  otherwise  shifting  tenant  population. 

Table  II. — Number  of  Tenants  in  Iowa  County  Who  Have  Occupied 
THE  Same  Farm  for  a Specified  Number  of  Years 


Years  of  occupancy 


Number  of 
tenants  with 
same  name 
as  owner 


Number  of 
tenants  with 
different 
name 


1 year 

2 years 

3 years 

4 years 

5 years 

6 years 

7 years 

8 years 

9 years 

10  years  and  over 


37 

134 

27 

50 

24 

22 

15 

9 

12 

9 

10 

10 

8 

4 

11 

8 

2 

1 

27 

12 

Total 


173 


259 


♦About  10  per  cent 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


21 


Rural  Schools 

Much  concern  has  been  felt  about  the  educational  con- 
ditions in  the  small,  one-room,  rural  school. 

WHERE  ARE  THE  SMALL  SCHOOLS? 

In  Wisconsin  there  are  three  definite  belts  of  schools  with 
less  than  15  pupils  each, — one,  with  a large  number  of 
schools  of  this  type  extending  across  the  southern  portion 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


If  we  study  the  number  of  schools  with  less  than  10  pupils 
each,  the  same  condition  is  observed.  But  small  schools  are 
found  in  largest  numbers  in  the  earlier  settled  southern 
portion  of  the  state. 

WHAT  ARE  THE  REASONS  FOR  THESE  SMALL  SCHOOLS? 

There  are  several  causes  for  this  condition. 

I.  — In  the  northern  portion  of  the  state,-  as  has  already 
been  pointed  out,  but  a small  percentage  of  the  total  land 
area  is  in  farms;  the  farms  are  more  or  less  widely  scattered, 
with  the  result  that  within  a definite  school  district  there 
are  but  few  families  and,  consequently,  a small  number  of 
pupils. 

II.  — In  the  southern  portion  of  the  state,  schools  have 
been  established,  in  many  instances,  when  the  number  of 
persons  of  school  age  on  farms  was  at  its  maximum.  As 
the  number  of  farms  has  decreased,  the  number  of  farm 
families  has  decreased  accordingly. 

III.  — ^The  composition  of  the  population  itself  has  changed. 
Many  of  the  original  settlers  were  of  foreign  birth.  It  has 
been  shown  that  the  number  of  children  to  the  family  to 
women  of  foreign  birth  is  larger  than  the  number  of  those 
of  native  parentage.  Since  the  percentage  of  foreigners  is 
decreasing  and  the  percentage  of  natives  is  increasing,  the 
number  of  children  to  the  farm  is  necessarily  decreasing. 

A further  analysis  of  statistics  reveals  that: — 

1.  — The  largest  families  reside  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
state. 

2.  — -In  practically  all  of  these  northern  counties  there  is,  on  the 
average,  more  than  one  pupil  to  the  family  attending  school. 

3.  — The  counties  having  an  average  of  five  persons  or  more 
to  the  family,  all  lie  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  state.  The 
exact  reason  for  this  condition  is  not  fully  evident,  but  apparently 
it  is  due  to  the  recent  settlement  of  this  section  by  a high  per- 
centage of  foreign  birth,  and  of  comparatively  young  people 
whose  children  are  still  living  at  home. 

In  the  southern  section,  even  yet,  school  districts  are  being 
broken  up  into  smaller  units,  with  the  result  that  we  have 
more  school  districts,  fewer  families,  and  fewer  children  to 
the  family  than  formerly. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


23 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE 

Rural  and  urban  attendance  compared. — The  sta- 
tistics of  school  attendance,  as  returned  by  the  federal 
census,  throw  little  light  upon  the  present  rural  school  con- 
ditions. The  attendance  of  children  of  6 to  14  years  of  age 
was  better  in  urban  than  in  rural  districts,  but  the  reverse 
was  true  for  those  of  15  to  20  years  of  age. 

This  first  condition  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  rural  school  children  have  so  far  to  go  over  bad 
roads  that  they  do  not  start  to  school  at  so  early  an  age  as 
do  city  school  children.  Statistics  collected  in  Iowa  county, 
and  included  in  this  study,  show  that  26.5  per  cent  of  the 
children  in  that  county  of  the  age  of  six  years  were  not  in 
school. 

It  is  also  more  difficult  to  enforce  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance law  in  the  country  than  it  is  in  the  city. 

The  higher  percentage  attendance  of  rural  school  children 
of  15  to  20  years  of  age  may  be  explained  as  follows: 

In  the  urban  school  the  attendance  at  an  early  age  is  more 
regular  and  the  grading  of  the  pupil  more  exacting.  The 
pupil  is  urged  with  greater  force  to  keep  step  with  his  class 
through  the  eight  grades  to  the  end.  After  completing  this 
work  he  must  either  go  on  to  high  school  or  drop  out  of 
school.  There  is,  as  a rule,  plenty  of  opportunity  for  the 
city  boy  to  earn  wages  during  the  winter,  whereas  the  boy 
in  the  rural  district  has  less  chance  for  gainful  employment. 
Hence  the  boy  in  the  rural  district  who  has  passed  through 
the  eight  grades  of  work  may  go  to  school  a part  of  the  year 
merely  because  he  has  nothing  more  immediately  remuner- 
ative to  do. 

Foreign  and  native  children  compared. — When  the 
statistics  are  further  analyzed  they  show  this  rather  peculiar 
fact: 

1.  — Children  of  all  ages  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage  attend 
school  in  relatively  greater  numbers  in  rural  than  in  urban 
districts. 

2.  — Native  white  children  attend  school  in  relatively  greater 
numbers  in  urban  than  in  rural  districts. 

3.  — But  native  white  children  attend  in  relatively  greater  num- 
bers in  both  urban  and  rural  districts  than  do  those  of  foreign 
and  mixed  parentage. 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


ILLITERACY  AS  A TEST  OF  SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


Illiteracy  has  often  been  used  as  a test  of  the  efficiency 
of  an  educational  system,  but  a rather  careful  examination 
of  the  illiteracy  figures  indicates  that  it  is  more  the  result 


The  highest  percentage  of  illiterate  rural  school  children  is  found  in  the  newer 
sections  of  the  state  where  population  is  sparse  and  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage. 
There  is  little  if  any  difference  between  amount  of  illiteracy  in  urban  and  adjacent 
rural  territory. 

of  social  and  economic  conditions  affecting  parents  than  of 
the  administration  of  schools. 

Assuming,  however,  that  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  among 
children  from  10  to  20  years  of  age  indicates  a lack  of  school 
efficiency,  we  find  that  where  a large  number  of  schools 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


25 


with  small  attendance  are  located,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy 
is  the  lowest  in  the  state.  Our  conclusion  must  then  be  that 
the  small  school  is  efficient. 

The  Rural  School  Teacher 

ARE  OUR  RURAL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS  INADEQUATELY  TRAINED? 

The  rural  school  teacher  has  been  severely  criticised  for 
her  lack  of  training.  The  report  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  shows  that  of  the  6600  rural  school 
teachers  in  Wisconsin: 

2 per  cent  had  only  a common  school  education, 

24  per  cent  had  attended  State  Normal  Schools, 

26  per  cent  were  graduates  of  County  Training  Schools, 

44  per  cent  were  graduates  of  high  schools  only. 

Similar  data  for  the  state  graded  schools  show  that: — 

52  per  cent  had  attended  State  Normal  Schools, 

18  per  cent  were  graduates  of  County  Training  Schools, 

30  per  cent  were  graduates  of  high  schools  only. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  graded  school  teacher  is  some- 
what better  trained  than  the  rural  school  teacher,  but 
statistics  indicate  that  as  a class,  rural  school  teachers  in 
Wisconsin  have  had  considerable  training. 

What  is  sufficient  training  for  a rural  school  teacher? 
Standards  will  differ,  but  when  this  standard  has  been  once 
determined  the  next  question  is,  how  may  successful  teachers 
with  the  desired  training  be  secured  and  retained  in  rural 
schools? 


THE  RURAL  TEACHERS’  TENURE  OF  OFFICE 

The  rural  school  teacher  has  been  much  criticised  because 
she  does  not  remain  longer  in  one  particular  school.  The 
returns  of  1913  show  that  the  average  teacher  in  the  rural 
schools  of  Wisconsin  has  taught  approximately  three  and 
one-half  years  and  spent  55  per  cent  of  that  time  in  the 
school  in  which  she  was  then  teaching.  A few  teachers 
remain  a long  time  in  the  service  of  country  schools,  but  the 
returns  show  that  they  are  continually  changing  from  one 
school  to  another. 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


WHY  DO  TEACHERS  NOT  REMAIN  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS? 

Some,  for  various  reasons,  quit  teaching  after  a veiy  short  time. 
Some  continue  teaching  but  soon  advance  into  positions  in 
graded  or  high  schools. 

The  rural  school  is  used  in  the  latter  case  either  as.  a 
training  school  or  as  a means  of  earning  money  to  use  in 
acquiring  a higher  education. 


WHY  DO  THEY  CHANGE  FROM  ONE  SCHOOL  TO  ANOTHER? 

Some  change  because  of  failure  to  “make  good.” 

Some  change  for  merely  personal  reasons  for  which  the  com- 
munity is  not  at  all  responsible — for  example  to  be  nearer  home, 
to  be  able  to  live  with  their  relatives. 

In  many  cases  the  change  is  made  in  order  to  get  an  increase  in 
salary  or  better  working  conditions. 

In  some  cases  the  districts  are  so  small  or  the  community  so 
poor  that  only  the  minimum  wage  can  be  paid. 

In  other  cases  the  people  will  not  tax  themselves  to  raise  suffi- 
cient money  or  otherwise  exert  themselves  to  create  desirable  con- 
ditions for  the  school  teacher,  so  that  experience  and  efficiency 
must  go  elsewhere  for  remuneration. 

Salary,  of  course,  is  an  important  item,  but  there  are  other 
things  to  be  considered.  Teachers  may  be  willing  to  change  from 
one  school  to  another  in  the  country  or  go  into  the  graded  schools 
at  the  same  wages,  because  there  is  a more  convenient  and 
better  place  to  board,  better  school  buildings,  better  equipment 
and  a more  congenial  community  life. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


27 


PART  IT— A STUDY  OF  IOWA  COUNTY 

Among  the  first  settlements  made  in  Wisconsin  were  those 
of  Iowa  county.  This  county  is  an  agricultural  district  with 
no  large  or  rapidly  growing  industrial  centers.  Its  cultivated 
area  has  reached  its  maximum  and  its  population  is  rela- 
tively stable.  It  has  no  large  cities  within  its  boundaries 
and  is  therefore  particularly  free  from  urban  social  and 
political  influence.  Though  there  are  a number  of  lead  and 
zinc  mines  within  the  county  its  chief  industry  is  agriculture. 
It  is  therefore  of  particular  interest  as  a typically  rural  Wis- 
consin county.  Because  it  presents  these  conditions  this 
county  was  selected  for  a more  detailed  study. 

Basis  for  Comparison 

The  returns  to  the  Census  Bureau  are  made  on  two 
schedules:  one  showing  the  farm  operations,  the  other  show- 
ing the  various  factors  relating  to  population.  In  this  study 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  connect,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
farm  and  the  population  schedules.  In  order  to  make  com- 
parisons possible  the  farmers  were  divided  into  groups  of 
native  and  foreign  born.  These  groups  were  further  sub- 
divided into  tenants  and  owners,  classified  as  to  the  number 
of  years  married  and  arranged  according  to  size  of  farms. 
Only  complete  data  have  been  used  hence  not  all  farms  in 
Iowa  county  are  included  in  Table  III. 


Table  III. — Number  of  Families  and  Number  of  Children  on  Iowa 
County  Farms. 


Tenants 

Owners 

Total 

Number 

of 

families 

Number 

of 

children 

Average 

children 

per 

family 

Number 

of 

families 

Number 

of 

children 

Average 

children 

per 

family 

Number 

of 

families 

Number 

of 

children 

Average 

children 

per 

family 

Native  parents 

314 

861 

2.7 

1029 

3903 

3.8 

1343 

4764 

3.5 

Foreign  parents 

38 

158 

4.1 

334 

1963 

5.8 

372 

2121 

5.7 

Total 

352 

1019 

3.0 

1363 

5866 

4.3 

1715 

6885 

4.0 

Married  over  20 

years 

44 

289 

6.5 

381 

2050 

5.3 

425 

2339 

5.5 

28 


Wisconsin  Research  Buixetin  40 


FAMILIES  OF  NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN  BORN  COMPARED 

It  appears  that  among  the  early  settlers  there  were  a 
great  many  foreigners,  but  that  in  recent  years,  few  foreigners 
have, been  settling  in  this  county.  The  younger  generation 
of  farmers  is  composed  principally  of  natives  and  native 
born  children  of  foreign  parents. 

Comparing  the  number  of  children  to  the  family  we  find 
that  the  foreigners  have  larger  families  than  the  natives. 
Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  foreigners  who  have  been  married 
more  than  20  years  have  10  or  more  children  to  the  family, 
whereas  among  the  natives  married  the  same  number  of 
years,  but  slightly  over  10  per  cent  of  the  families  have  ten 
or  more  children.  The  average  number  of  children  to  the 
family  of  those  married  over  20  years,  for  natives,  is  5.5, 
whereas  the  number  of  foreign  parents  is  7.  These  facts  1 
agree  with  observations  made  with  reference  to  the  state  ; 
as  a whole,  both  as  to  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  foreign 
born  and  as  to  the  smaller  families  of  the  native  born.  ! 

I 

The  Relation  Between  Tenure,  Size  of  Family  and  ‘ 

Size  of  Farm  ’ 

An  analysis  of  the  relation  of  the  size  and  tenure  of  farms  j 
to  the  size  of  the  families  on  the  farms  reveals  These  facts:  | 

1.  — -That  usually  the  tenant  farmer  married  the  same  | 

number  of  years  has  a larger  number  of  children  than  the  < 
owner  farmer.  j 

2.  — The  larger  farms  have  the  larger  families. 

3.  — The  average  size  of  the  farm  operated  by  the  tenant 

is  larger  than  the  average  operated  by  the  owner.  \ 

The  relation  noted  between  size  of  farm  and  size  of  family 
may,  however,  be  only  accidental,  as  those  on  the  larger  1 
farms  usually  have  been  married  the  greater  number  of  | 
years.  There  is  an  interesting  question  suggested  here  in  | 
the  fact  -that  the  average  tenant  family  is  larger  than  the^ 
average  family  of  the  owner  operator  married  the  same, 
number  of  years.  Are  we  developing  a tenant  class  with 
large  families  and  with  necessarily  low  standards  of  living? 

An  analysis  of  statistics  for  this  county  shows  that: 

40  per  cent  of  those  married  less  than  10  years  are  tenants, 

15  per  cent  of  those  married  10  to  20  years  are  tenants. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education  29 

Thus  we  see  that  the  number  of  tenants  decreases  rapidly 
with  the  number  of  years  married. 

When  those  owners  with  mortgages  on  their  farms  are 
separated  from  those  holding  their  farms  free  and  included 
in  the  comparison  of  those  married  10  to  20  years  we  find 
that: 

45  per  cent  are  farmers  with  farms  free, 

40  per  cent  are  farmers  with  mortgage  on  their  farms, 
i5  per  cent  are  tenants. 

For  those  married  more  than  20  years: 

57  per  cent  are  farmers  with  farms  free, 

35  per  cent  are  farmers  with  mortgages  on  their  farms, 

8 per  cent  are  tenants. 

Or  by  a different  arrangement  of  the  tenant  data: 

40  per  cent  of  those  married  less  than  10  years  are  tenants, 

15  per  cent  of  those  married  10  to  20  years  are  tenants, 

8 per  cent  of  those  married  over  20  years  are  tenants. 

These  facts  give  evidence  that  there  is  a farm  tenure  ladder 
by  which  the  young  man  rises  from  tenant  to  the  ownership 
of  the  farm  which  he  operates.  The  steps  may  be  taken 
either  by  purchase  by  means  of  accumulated  capital,  or  by 
credit,  or  both,  or  by  inheritance. 

-‘qWe  have  noted  that  in  Iowa  county  a large  number  of  the 
I tenants  were  probably  related  to  the  owner  of  the  farm  which 
they  operated;  that  is,  in  many  cases,  the  tenant  is  virtually 
a partner  in  business  with  his  father.  Such  temporary  ten- 
ants do  not  constitute  a distinct  economic  class  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense  of  the  term.  The  increasing  value  of  land  may 
make  progress  from  tenant  to  ownership  by  purchase  more 
difficult  but  a more  extensive  use  of  credit  will  partially 
compensate  for  the  rise  in  value.  The  number  of  tenants 
may  increase  but  as  long  as  they  remain  for  a long  term  of 
years  on  the  same  farm  and  are  taken  from  the  present 
native  population  and  for  whom  there  is  hope  of  becoming 
jfarm  owners,  they  do  not  constitute  a separate  economic 
'^and  social  class  to  be  considered  separately  when  dealing 
with  matters  affecting  rural  education. 

School  Attendance  in  Iowa  County 

The  data  in  regard  to  school  attendance  seem  to  be  less 
accurate  than  the  data  for  the  other  facts  tabulated  for 


30 


. Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


this  county,  therefore,  too  much  dependence  should  not  be 
placed  on  the  results.  These  data  show  that:  i 

1. - — ^The  school  attendance  of  children  6 to  14  years  of  age  I 
was  better  for  those  of  foreign  parentage,  but  beyond  this  ^ 
period  the  attendance  was  better  for  those  of  native  paren- 
tage. Fifty  per  cent  of  the  children  15  to  20  years  of  age  . 
remaining  at  home  attended  school. 

2.  — The  children  of  tenants  did  not  attend  school  in  as 
large  proportions  as . did  the  children  of  owners.  This  is  ! 
true  primarily  because  a larger  proportion  of  the  tenants’ 
children  are  from  six  to  seven  years  of  age. 

3.  — It  seems  that  the  smaller  the  farm  the  smaller  the  at- 
tendance. This  may  be  due  to  two  factors:  first,  that  the 
farmers  on  the  smaller  farms  have  a larger  proportion  of 
younger  children;  second,  that  these  farmers  require  the 
labor  of  the  children;  whereas  the  farmers  on  the  larger  i 
farms  can  afford  to  hire  help. 


Small  Schools 

In  addition  to  the  study  of  the  census  returns  a field  study 
of  the  county  was  made  with  the  assistance  of  the  county 
superintendent.  This  study  shows  that  the  most  common 
size  of  the  rural  schools  in  this  county  is  15  pupils.  There 
were  many  very  small  schools  and  but  few  have  more  than 
30  pupils.  This  is  the  condition  that  exists  in  a rural  county 
that  for  several  years  has  had  a practically  stationary  popu- 
lation. In  fact,  the  rural  population  in  this  county  has'l 
declined  about  3 per  cent  in  the  past  ten  years,  whereas  the 
number  of  farms  has  increased  slightly.  ^ 

The  small  schools  in  this  county  seem  to  be,  therefore, 
the  result  of  causes  that  we  have  already  observed  to  exist 
throughout  the  older  settled  portions  of  the  state. 


Influence  of  High  Schools  on  Rural  School 
Attendance 

A map  of  the  rural  schools  of  the  county,  indicating  the 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  each  school,  shows  that  the 
small  schools  are  generally  grouped  around  nearby  high  ; 
schools.  If  we  turn  to  a map  showing  the  distribution  of  | 
high  school  attendance  from  rural  districts,  we  see  that  there  • I 
are  a large  number  of  high  school  students  coming  from  these  j 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


31 


same  small  districts.  We  must  therefore  conclude  that  the 
accessibility  of  high  schools  has  a marked  influence  on  the 
attendance  from  rural  districts,  and  that  the  opportunity 
of  securing  a high  school  education  is  an  incentive  to  the 
completion  of  the  rural  school  course  of  study. 


Map  showing  rural  school  attendance  in  Iowa  county.  Note  that  the  small 
j located  either  in  small  districts  or  near  the  larger  tonws  of  Dodgeville 

and  Mineral  Point. 


One  cause,  therefore,  of  the  small  school  may  be  its  effici- 
ency, measured,  not  by  the  number  it  can  enroll  on  its 
records,  but  by  the  number  that  it  can  put  through  and  send 
on  to  a higher  school. 

The  Cost  of  the  Small  School 

So  far,  no  reason  has  been  revealed  for  condemning  the 
small  school;  in  fact  there  is  no  satisfactory  method  of  meas- 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


uring  the  efficiency  of  any  school.  But  the  size  of  the  school 
must  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  financial  support. 
The  average  salary  of  teachers  in  this  county  is  but  little 
over  $40  a month.  If  she  has  only  10  pupils,  the  instruction 
cost  per  pupil  was  $4  a month;  20  pupils,  $2  a month;  40 
pupils,  $1  a month.  Other  items  in  the  cost  of  maintaining 
a school  are  comparatively  small.  On  the  average  the  main- 
tenance cost  is  but  little  more  for  a school  of  40  pupils  than 
for  one  of  5 or  more  pupils. 


Yeorlu 

cost 

pupil 

^60 


% 

his  line 

shoUT5 

now 

f RAGI _ 

X Sau 
hoolT 

vAl'lGL 

L5 

■ 

. 

as 

~5l2tr- 

:,C05f 

PER  F 

l'pil  D 

:CREA5, 

13 

^IZE 

5c  f 

OOL  Ih 

CREA5 

:s 

Teacher's 

monthljj 

solarjj 

% 


tio.oj pupils  5 !0  15  20  25  50  35  40  45  50 


FIG.  16.— THE  SMALL  SCHOOL  EXPENSIVE 


Schools  of  less  than  20  pupils  each  are  seldom  able  to  pay  more  than  the  minimum 
salary,  hence  they  must  employ  the  least  efficient  teachers.  Even  at  this  low  rate 
of  waaes  the  average  cost  of  instruction  p'er  pupil  increases  rapidly  as  the  size  of 
the  school  decreases. 


The  very  small  school  from  small  districts  and  poor  com- 
munities may  be  too  great  an  economic  burden  to  the 
patrons  and  result  in  the  employment  of  inefficient  teachers 
and  the  use  of  very  poor  equipment. 

High  Schools  for  the  Rural  Children 

Granting  that  a high  school  education  is  desirable  for 
the  boys  and  girls  of  rural  communities,  we  find  very  good 
argument  for  placing  high  schools  within  easy  reach  of 
every  farm  so  that  the  children  may  remain  at  home,  at 
least  over  the  week  end.  From  a study  of  the  map  of  high 
school  attendance  from  rural  districts  in  both  Iowa  and  Wal- 
worth counties,  it  seems  that: 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


33 


1.  — The  better  the  transportation  facilities  to  any  high  school 
center  the  greater  the  attendance. 

2.  — The  attendance  varies  inversely  with  the  distance  from 
school. 


FIG.  17. — WHERE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  STUDENTS  LIVE 

Map  showing  high  school  and  college  attendance  in  Iowa  county.  There  seems 
be  some  association  between  the  small  school  and  attendance  on  high  schools 
and  colleges.  Compare  with  map  showing  rural  school  attendance  in  Iowa  county. 


What  Becomes  of  the  Farm  Boy  and  Girl? 

Only  a small  percentage  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  15  to  20 
years  of  age  are  in  rural  schools.  A certain  percentage  of 
them  are  in  high  schools.  Approximately  50  per  cent  of 
those  remaining  at  home  are  in  some  type  of  school.  But 
where  are  those  that  are  not  in  school?  Some  of  them  re- 
main at  home  on  the  farm;  some  leave  home  to  workjfor 
wages. 

By  comparing  the  number  of  children  living  and  the  num- 
ber at  home,  it  is  possible  to  estimate  the  number  who  have 


34 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


left  home.  Since  most  of  the  children  of  those  who  have 
been  married  less  than  20  years  are  not  of  an  age  to  leave 
home,  the  only  fair  method  of  comparison  is  by  using  the 
families  of  parents  who  have  been  married  20  years  or  more. 
This  reveals  the  fact: 

That  although  the  foreign  born  had  a larger  number  of  chil- 
dren to  the  family  than  the  natives,  they  had  the  smaller  num- 
ber remaining  at  home;  ' 

And  also  that  a smaller  percentage  of  the  children  of  families 
living  on  small  farms  remain  at  home  than  of  those  living  on 
larger  farms. 


FIG.  18.— MORE  SCHOOLS  OR  BETTER  ROADS,  WHICH? 

Map  showing  farm  homes  in  Walworth  county  sending  pupils  to  graded  and  high 
schools.  Note  that  80  per  cent  of  all  farms  in  this  county  are  within  a four  mile 
radius  of  some  school  offering  instruction  of  a secondary  grade.  (From  data  fur- 
nished by  C.  J.  Galpin). 


A partial  explanation^for  the  smaller  number  of  children 
of  foreign  parentage  remaining  at  home,  is  the  larger  pro- 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


35 


portion  of  older  children,  since  it  appears  that  among  the 
natives  there  is  a large  proportion  of  younger  children. 

It  must  not  be  concluded,  however,  that  because  the  chil- 
dren have  left  home  they  have  left  the  rural  districts.  Yet 
from  independent  studies  made  by  others,  as  well  as  from  a 
careful  study  of  these  statistics,  it  appears  that  the  larger 
proportion  of  those  leaving  home  come  from  the  smaller 
farms.  It  is  certain  that  many  do  go  to  the  cities. 


Table  IV. — Number  of  Children  Living  and  Number  at  Home,  by 
Sizes  of  Farms,  of  Tenants  and  Owners  Who  Have 
Been  Married  20  Years  or  More 


Size  of  farms 

Tenants 

Owners 

Total 

Living 

At  home 

Living 

At  home 

Living 

At  home 

Native 

Tinder  20  aeres  

70 

41 

70 

41 

20  to  49  acres 

10 

8 

82 

30 

92 

38 

50  to  99  acres 

23 

14 

109 

75 

132 

89 

100  to  174  acres 

48 

35 

485 

350 

533 

385 

175  to  259  acres 

117 

83 

460 

341 

577 

424 

260  to  499  acres i 

57 

48 

523 

398 

580 

446 

500  acres  and  over 

4 

4 

75 

61 

79 

65 

Total 

259 

192 

1804 

1296 

2063 

1488 

Foreifin 

Under  20  acres 

67 

21 

67 

21 

20  to  49  acres 

106 

48 

106 

48 

50  to  99  acres 

223 

108 

223 

108 

100  to  174  acres 

27 

15 

507 

268 

534 

283 

175  to  259  acres 

26 

22 

236 

171 

262 

193 

260  to  499  acres 

18 

16 

186 

112 

204 

128 

500  acres  and  over 

7 

7 

29 

21 

36 

28 

Total 

78 

60 

1354 

749 

1432 

809 

The  Gap  Between  the  Finishing  of  Education  and  the 
Beginning  of  Farming 

From  the  facts  noted  above  it  is  evident  that  only  a small 
percentage  of  farm  boys  and  girls  remain  in  school  after 
they  reach  the  age  of  18  years  or  the  age  of  high  school 
graduation.  The  1910  Census  returns  for  Wisconsin  show 
that  less  than  3 per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  that  state  are 
under  25  years  of  age,  and  but  22  per  cent  are  under  35  years 
of  age.  The  average  age  of  the  farmers  on  the  Census  date 
was  approximately  46  years.  By  subtracting  from  this  the 
average  number  of  years  that  they  have  occupied  their 


36 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


farms,  it  is  found  that  they  were  between  34  and  35  years  of 
age  when  they  became  permanently  settled  as  farmers.  A 
study  of  statistics  collected  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Indiana 
shows  that  farm  owners  begin  farming  at  the  average  age 
of  27.4  years,  and  tenants  at  28.9  years  each.  In  other  words, 
there  is  an  intervening  period  of  at  least  10  years  between 
the  time  that  the  boy  leaves  school  and  the  time  when  he 
begins  farming  on  his  own  account,  and  another  period  of 
6 years  before  he  is  settled  on  a farm  that  he  intends  to 
occupy  permanently.  This  intervening  period  is  sufficient 
to  make  him  forget  much  that  he  learned  in  school  unless 
thie  instruction  is  of  a nature  that  finds  immediate  practical 
application. 


The  Farmer  and  His  Education 

In  order  to  determine  those  things  which  influence  the 
farmer  in  his  work,  and  to  learn  his  attitude  towards  educa- 
tion in  general,  and  agricultural  education  in  particular,  a 
questionnaire  was  sent  to  a selected  list  of  Wisconsin’s 
most  progressive  farmers.  Three  hundred  and  fifty  replies 
were  received  and  such  answers  as  could  be  tabulated  have 
been  summarized  and  the  results  are  here  given.  Of  course 
there  is  no  way  to  determine  whether  these  replies  are  typical 
of  the  mental  attitude  of  a majority  of  the  farmers  of  the 
state  or  not,  but  they  do  represent  the  views  of  the  leading 
dairymen,  fruit  growers,  live  stock  breeders  and  seed  grain 
growers  from  whose  organization  lists  these  names  were 
selected. 


Sources  of  Incentive 

As  it  was  found  that  185  of  those  who  replied  to  the  ques- 
tionnaire had  studied  agriculture  at  Madison,  most  of  them 
taking  the  short  course,  and  l65  had  never  studied  agricul- 
ture in  school,  the  answers  were  divided  according  to  those 
who  had  studied  agriculture  at  the  college  and  those  who  had 
not. 

Among  the  questions  asked  was,  “Do  you  grow  alfalfa 
and  what  led  you  to  try  it?” 

Of  the  replies  of  the  first  group  as  to  sources  of  incentive, 

39,  because  alfalfa  was  a good  crop  to  grow  on  account  of  its 
high  feeding  value. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education  37 

38,  because  they  had  attended  the  short  course. 

27,  because  they  had  determined  that  alfalfa  would  increase 
the  profits  of  farming, 

25,  because  they  had  read  about  alfalfa  in  the  papers. 

17,  because  their  neighbors  had  grown  it  they  were  convinced, 
from  their  own  observations  that  it  was  a good  thing  .to  grow. 

32,  reported  that  they  had  never  tried  to  raise  alfalfa. 

Of  course,  those  who  had  taken  the  short  course  showed 
that  this  had  been  a great  inspiration  to  them  and  in  many 
cases  had  determined  that  they  should  take  up  the  progres- 
sive idea.  A large  number  of  them  give  the  short  course 
credit  in  their  answers.  Those  who  say  that  they  were  in- 
duced to  grow  alfalfa  because  it  had  a greater  feeding  value, 
or  because  it  would  increase  profits,  do  not  indicate  where 
they  learned  these  facts. 

Of  those  who  had  not  studied  agriculture  in  school 

33  reported  that  reading  papers  had  been  the  thing  that  In- 
fluenced them  to  grow  alfalfa, 

29  reported  that  the  profits  from  raising  this  crop  caused  them 
to  decide  in  its  favor. 

16  reported  that  the  success  of  neighbors  had  influenced  them 
in  making  their  decisions. 

54  of  this  group  reported  that  they  had  never  tried  to  raise 
alfalfa. 

In  other  words,  the  proportion  of  those  who  had  never 
tried  to  raise  alfalfa  was  twice  as  great  among  those  who  had 
not  studied  agriculture  as  among  those  who  had. 

Another  question  asked  was,  “Have  you  any  pure  bred 
animals  and  what  led  you  to  purchase  them?” 

Of  those  who  had  studied  agriculture,  only  21  had  no  pure 
bred  animals;  whereas  of  those  who  had  never  studied 
agriculture  in  school,  38  had  no  pure  bred  animals.  The 
incentive  that  seemed  to  predominate  in  influencing  these 
farmers  to  raise  pure  bred  animals  was  that  of  profits.  The 
short  course  had  been  quite  effectual  in  helping  them  to 
form  a decision.  A characteristic  of  certain  men  is  that 
they  are  proud  to  have  first  class  animals  on  their  farms 
and  this  had  decided  some  to  keep  this  kind  of  stock.  Among 
i those  who  had  never  attended  the  short  course,  the  profits 
I had  been  the  predominating  influence.  The  reading  of  farm 
papers  seemed  to  have  taken  the  place  of  the  short  course 
in  helping  this  group  to  decide  to  keep  pure  bred  stock. 

The  third  question  asked  was,  “Do  you  have  a silo  and 
what  led  you  to  build  it?” 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


Of  those  who  had  taken  the  short  course,  again  the  profits 
seemed  to  be  the  deciding  point.  The  next  most  important 
incentive  was  the  increase  in  the  feeding  value  of  crops  made 
into  silage.  The  reading  of  papers  had  had  more  influence 
than  the  short  course.  The  answers  also  indicated  that  the 
number  influenced  by  neighbors  was  but  little  less  than  the 
number  influenced  by  the  short  course. 

49  of  those  who  hod  studied  agriculture  had  no  silos, 

55  of  those  who  had  never  studied  agriculture  had  no  silos. 

Similarly,  among  those  who  had  not  attended  the  short  course 
the  profits  had  appealed  to  them  most  strongly  and  the 
reading  of  papers , had  been  second  in  importance.  The 
greater  feeding  value  of  silage  also  appealed  strongly  to 
them.  The  neighbors  seemed  to  have  had  some  influence 
in  helping  them  to  make  the  decision. 

The  above  comparisons  between  those  who  had,  and  those 
who  had  not  studied  agriculture  seem  to  indicate  that  those 
who  had  studied  agriculture  in  school  were  adopting  pro- 
gressive ideas  more  generally  than  the  second  group,  as 
shown  by  the  following  table: 

OF  185  FARMERS  WHO  HAD  STUDIED  AGRICULTURE  IN  SCHOOL 

There  were  but  21  or  11.3  per  cent  who  owned  no  pure  bred  animals, 
There  were  but  32  or  17.3  per  cent  who  never  tried  to  grow  alfalfa. 
There  were  but  49  or  26.5  per  cent  who  did  not  have  silos. 


OF  165  FARMERS  WHO  HAD  NOT  STUDIED 
AGRICULTURE  IN  SCHOOL 

There  were  38  or  23.0  per  cent  who  owned  no  pure  bred  animals 
There  were  54  or  32,7  per  cent  who  never  tried  to  grow  alfalfa 
There  were  55  or  33.3  per  cent  who  did  not  have  silos. 

A number  of  additional  questions  were  asked  as  to  whether 
or  not  they  used  pedigreed  seed,  selected  and  tested  seed 
corn,  weighed  and  tested  milk.  The  question  was  then  asked : 

“What  induced  you  to  do  the  up-to-date  things  you  are 
doing?” 

Here,  again,  the  replies  were  grouped  as  to  whether  or 
not  they  had  studied  agriculture  in  school. 

Those  who  had  attended  the  short  course,  indicated  that 
it  had  been  the  predominant  influence  in  leading  them  to 
adopt  advanced  practices.  The  next  most  important  in- 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


39 


fluence  mentioned  was  the  reading  of  agricultural  papers. 
It  was  also  indicated  in  their  answers  that  they  had  per- 
sonal ambitions  to  be  something  as  farmers  and  leaders  in 
their  communities,  and  that  this  had  led  them  to  progress 
in  their  agricultural  work.  The  reading  of  bulletins  seems 
to  have  played  rather  a minor  part. 

Those  who  had  never  studied  agriculture  in  school  indi- 
cated that  the  reading  of  papers  had  been  the  principal 
factor  in  helping  them  to  make  their  decisions  and  the  read- 
ing of  bulletins  the  next  in  importance.  They  also  men- 
tioned a personal  ambition  to  be  something  as  farmers  and 
leaders  in  their  communities. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  the  example  of  neighbors 
and  the  influence  of  their  own  children  had  also  caused 
both  groups  to  progress  in  their  agricultural  practices.  The 
influence  of  children  seems  to  have  been  stronger  among 
those  who  had  not  attended  the  short  course  thau  those  who 
had.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  influence  of  the 
short  course  overshadowed  all  the  other  factors. 

The  Influence  of  the  Short  Course 

A question  was  asked  of  those  who  had  attended  the  short 
course  to  determine  what  things  they  had  studied  at  the 
agricultural  college  that  had  been  put  into  practice  on  their 
farms.  The  most  prominent  item  was  the  selecting,  testing 
and  use  of  pure  bred  seed.  The  ownership  of  pure  bred 
stock  was  the  second  in  importance.  The  next  in  importance 
in  the  order  named  were  the  fundamentals  of  dairying,  the 
feeding  of  live  stock,  better  general  farming,  care  of  animals, 
methods  of  crop  rotation,  the  growing  of  alfalfa  and  clover, 
methods  of  studying  the  soil,  judging  cattle,  and  the  use  of 
the  silo.  * 

^ _ The  Education  of  the  Earmer’s  Children 

It  was  desired  to  learn  something  of  the  farmer’s  interest 
in  the  general  education  of  his  children.  The  difference  in 
*theJeducation  of  the  younger  and  the  older  boys  brings  out 
one  or  two  very  striking  points.  The  adult  sons  were 
divided  into  two  groups: 

1.  — Those  between  20  and  29  years  of  age. 

2.  — Those  over  30  years  of  age. 


40 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


Those  between  20  and  29  years  of  age  can  be  considered 
as  having  attended  school  within  the  last  10  or  15  years, 

• whereas,  not  many  of  those  who  were  over  30  can  be  con- 
sidered as  having  attended  school  within  the  same  period. 

It  was  found  that  a much  larger  percentage  of  those  be- 
tween 20  and  29  years  of  age  who  remained  at  home  or  who 
were  engaged  in  farming  had  attended  both  high  school  and 
college  than  those  of  the  older  group. 

Among  the  younger  group  of  children  there  were  43  who 
had  attended  college.  Twenty-six  or  60  per  cent  of  these 
had  remained  on  farms.  Of  the  older  group  there  were  22 
who  had  attended  college  and  but  five  of  these  or  22.6  per 
cent  were  to  be  found  on  farms.  Continuing  this  analysis 
it  was  found  that  a much  higher  percentage  of  the  younger 
group  of  children  similarly  had  high  school  training. 

This  seems  to  indicate  the  awakening  of  farmers  to  a re- 
alization of  the  value  of  higher  education  even  if  their  sons 
are  to  return  to  the  farm.  They  have  always  recognized 
the  necessity  for  special  preparation  for  professional  life. 

From  the  data  obtained  it  was  impossible  to  make  similar 
comparisons  of  the  education  of  farmers’  daughters,  though 
it  is  evident  that  a much  smaller  percentage  of  them  attend 
higher  institutions  of  learning  than  do  farmers’  sons,  even 
though  they  may  have  equally  good  high  school  training. 


The  Education  of  the  Farmer’s  Wife 

It  has  been  said  that  educated  women  do  not  marry 
farmers.'  The  returns  show  that  of  farmers’  wives  over  30 
years  of  age,  but  35  per  cent  of  them  had  an  education 
beyond  the  common  school,  while  for  those  under  30  years 
of  age  60  per  cent  had  a high  scl^ool  education  or  better. 


The  Influence  of  Agriculture  in  the  Public  Schools 

In  this  study  the  farmers  were  asked  to  give  their  opinions 
of  the  value  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  Fifty-nine 
replied  that  it  was  of  no  value.  Either  it  had  not  been  taught 
or  when  it  had  been  taught  it  had  left  no  impress  on  the 
community.  Fifty-three  stated  that  their  children  took 
more  interest  in  their  work  both  in  school  and  out  of  it.  A 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


41 


large  number  believed  it  to  be  of  value  but  did  not  mention 
in  what  way. 

The  specific  things  taught  in  the  public  schools  mentioned 
as  of  value  are  arranged  in  the  following  list  in  order  of 
preference: 

1.  — The  use  of  pure  bred  seeds. 

2.  — Testing  seed  corn. 

3.  — Growing  corn. 

4.  — The  value  of  pure  bred  stock. 

5.  — Testing  milk. 

6.  — Testing  seeds  in  general. 

7.  — Growing  alfalfa. 

In  comparison  with  the  above  it  is  interesting  to  note  the 
replies  of  farmers  to  the  question  of  value  of  Boys’  and  Girls’ 
Club  work: 

120  indicated  that  it  had  increased  their  children’s  interest  in 
better  farming. 

33  replied  that  it  had  kept  their  boys  and  girls  on  the  farm. 

20  frankly  acknowledged  that  it  had  induced  their  children’s  • 
parents  to  grow  better  crops,  and  only 

12  replied  that  club  work  was  of  no  value. 

Superficially  it  may  seem  that  Boys’  and  Girls’  Club  work 
has  been  of  more  influence  than  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in 
schools,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  club  work  in  Wis- 
consin is  carried  on  through  the  schools.  It  cannot  be  con- 
cluded, therefore,  that  club  work  should  take  precedence 
over  general  instruction  in  the  school,  but  it  is  evident  that 
if  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  schools  is  to  be  effective 
it  must  be  carried  into  the  home. 


Suggested  Improvements 

The  farmers  were  asked  to  suggest  needed  improvements 
in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  Their 
replies  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  — Need  for  better  prepared  teachers, 

2.  — Need  for  more  practical  instruction, 

3.  — Need  for  more  extensive  teaching. 

It  is  evident  that  this  group  of  Wisconsin  farmers  thoroughly 
approve  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools 
and  are  ready  to  further  it  in  every  possible  way  whenever 
the  instruction  is  of  such  nature  as  to  meet  with  their  ideals. 


42 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


Education  and  Land  Ownership* 

Does  the  quality  of  his  education  aff-ect  the  time  necessary 
for  the  farmer  to  acquire  free  title  to  his  land?  For  this 
study  the  farmers  were  arranged  in  two  classes  as  follows: 

Glass  1. — Those  who  had  a high  school  education  or  better. 

Class  2. — Those  who  had  a common  school  education  only. 
Each  of  these  classes  were  again  subdivided  into  three 
groups: 

1.  — Those  who  had  always  worked  on  farms  when  not  in 
school  until  they  began  farming  on  their  own  account. 

2.  — Those  who  never  worked  on  farms  until  they  began  farming 
on  their  own  account. 

3.  — Those  who  had  worked  both  on  farms  and  at  other  occupa- 
tions before  beginning  farming  on  their  own  account. 


It  was  found  that  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  high 
school  class  had  never  worked  on  farms  or  had  worked  at 
both  farming  and  something  else,  before  they  began  farm- 
ing for  themselves  than  of  the  common  school  class. 

^^By  what  processes  had  these  farmers  acquired  free  title 
to  their  land? 

1.  — The  largest  number  of  both  classes  had  started  with 
mortgages  on  their  farms. 

2.  — The  second  largest  number  of  both  classes  had  begun  as 
tenants  and  then  acquired  ownership  through  mortgage. 

3.  — (a)  Among  the  high  school  class  the  third  group  in  import- 

ance were  those  who  had  been  tenants  but  whose  farms  had  ■ 
never  been  mortgaged.  I 

(b)  Among  the  common  school  class  the  third  group  in  im-  ■ 
portance  had  neither  been  tenants  nor  had  their  farms  ever  been  - t 
mortgaged. 

'1* 

At  what  age  had  these  men  begun  farming  on  their  own  A 
account?  * 

1.  — Those  who  had  never  followed  any  other  occupation  than  x 

farming  began  farming  at  an  earlier  age  than  either  of  the  other  i 
two  groups.  ' . 1 1 

2.  — Those  who  had  a high  school  education  began  farming  x j 

over  one  year  later  than  those  who  had  only  a common  school  )| 

education. 

3.  — It  took  the  man  with  a common  school  education  who  T 

had  engaged  only  in  farming  10  years  to  obtain  possession  of  a £ 

clear  title.  s 

4.  —It  took  the  man  with  a high  school  education  slightly  » 

over  seven  years  to  obtain  a clear  title  to  his  farm.  This  ad-  # 

vantage  over  the  common  school  group  may  have  been  due,  1 

however,  to  superior  opportunity  or  financial  advantage.  s 

♦Note: — Based  on  complete  data  secured  from  315  farmers.  The  numbers 
given  are  the  averages  for  the  group.  W 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


43 


5.  — Those  who  had  never  farmed  began  farming  on  their  own 
account  between  8 and  9 ^''ears  later  than  those  who  had  always 
farmed  with  the  result  that  they  owned  their  farms  free  from 
5 to  8 years  later  in  life  than  those  who  devoted  themselves 
entirely  to  farming. 

6.  — Those  with  a common  school  education  began  farming  at 
approximately  26  years  of  age. 

7.  — Those  with  a high  school  education  began  farming  at  the 
age  of  27. 

8.  — Those  with  a common  school  education  owned  their  farms 
free  at  36  years. 

9.  — Those  with  a high  school  education  owned  their  farms  free 
at  between  34  and  35  years  of  age. 

By  comparison  of  the  above  observations  it  is  noted  that  the 
men  with  a high  school  education  began  farming  on  their 
own  account  one  year  later  but  owned  their  farms  free  from 
debt  over  one  year  earlier  in  life.  These  data  apparently 
indicate  that  a high  school  education  is  a good  investment 
for  the  farmer  and  that  it  pays  the  boy  who  intends  ulti- 
mately to  be  a farmer  to  stick  by  the  farm  rather  than  to 
engage  in  other  occupations. 


The  Cash  Value  of  the  Farmer’s  Education* 

For  the  purpose  of  studying  the  relation  between  the 
farmer’s  education  and  his  earning  capacity,  statistics  col- 
lected on  825  Wisconsin  farms  during  the  past  two  years 
have  been  brought  together  in  Table  V. 

Table  V. — The  Relation  Between  Education,  Investment,  and 

Income 


Highest  school  attended 

Education 

Common 

school 

Short  course 
in  agriculture 

High 

school 

College 

Number  records  studied 

478 

108 

155 

84 

Average  size  of  investment 

$19,958 

$22,830 

$23,502 

$27,577 

Income  from  investment  (5  per 
cent 

998 

1,241 

1,275 

1,380 

Average  labor  income 

632 

739 

893 

1 ,056 

Total  income  (Interest  on  in- 
vestment and  labor  income).... 

1 , 630 

1,980 

2,168 

2,436 

Average  value  of  residence 

1,764 

1,837 

1,939 

2 . 558 

*From  thesis  material  compiled  by  W.  O.  Lockhart,  graduate  student  in  1915. 


44 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


Labor  Income  Defined 

As  here  used,  labor  income  is  equivalent  to  net  proceeds. 

In  order  to  ascertain  labor  income,  the  total  receipts  (in- 
cluding increased  inventory)  are  first  ascertained.  All  costs 
of  farm  operations,  including  labor  of  all  members  of  the 
farmer’s  family  (except  the  farmer  himself)  are  then  paid. 
That  portion  of  the  family  maintenance,  obtained  directly 
from  the  farm  is  deducted  as  well  as  5%  interest  on  the  total 
capital  invested.  What  remains  after  these  deductions  are 
made,  according  to  this  method  (now  widely  used  through- 
out the  United  States)  is  termed  labor  income.  This  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  amount  that  the  farmer  receives 
for  his  labor  and  management  during  the  year. 


What  This  Study  Indicates 

It  is  apparent  from  the  table  that  the  best  educated  farmer 
stands  the  best  chance  of  making  a large  income  and  ap- 
parently has  the  ability  to  earn  a normal  rate  of  interest  on 
a larger  investment  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  farmer  with  the  best 
education  not  only  receives  the  largest  labor  income,  as  well 
as  total  income,  but  also  maintains  a higher  average  standard 
of  living.  This  latter  deduction  may  be  drawn  from  two 
sources: 

1.  — The  size  of  the  investment  in  a place  of  residence, 

2.  — The  larger  use  of  modern  improvements  as  shown  by 
Table  VI. 


Table  VI. — The  Relation  of  Education  to  Standards  of  Living 


Education 

Highest  school  attended 

Common 

school 

Short  course 
in  agriculture 

High 

school 

College 

Per  cent  having  modern  bath 

rooms 

21  .9 

24.1 

27.2 

48.5 

Per  cent  having  modern  lighting 

systems 

17.0 

22.1 

20.5 

44.0 

Per  cent  having  furnace  heat 

22.1 

29.7 

80.0 

47.0 

Per  cent  having  automobiles 

20.0 

23.6 

25.4 

29.1 

Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


45 


Evidence  Not  Conclusive 

The  farmers  on  whose  farms  these  records  were  taken  were 
among  the  best  in  each  county,  i.  e.,  they  were  a select  list. 
It  is  entirely  possible  that  in  the  very  process  of  education 
itself,  classification  in  native  ability,  corresponding  very 
closely  to  these  four  groups,  may  have  come  about  by  natural 
selection.  This,  Of  course,  must  remain  an ^ open  question 
though  a further  analysis  of  the  data  shows  that  a very 
large  proportion  of  the  older  men  are  found  in  the  common 
school  group,  doubtless,  owing  to  the  limited  educational 
opportunity  afforded  them.  In  all  probability,  therefore, 
gradation  according  to  education  came  as  a result  of  oppor- 
tunity rather  than  as  a result  of  natural  selection.  These 
observations. should  be  made  the  subject  of  further  investi- 
gation. 


46 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


PART  III.— TYPES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS 
IN  WISCONSIN 

K.  L.  Hatch 

There  are  in  Wisconsin  two  types  of  institutions  offering 
secondary  instruction  in  Agriculture  as  determined  by  the 
sources  from  which  they  derive  their  support: 

I. — The  county  schools  of  agriculture  and  domestic 
economy. 

H. — The  local  high  schools. 

The  county  schools  of  agriculture  are  supported  jointly 
by  county  and  state  while  the  local  high  schools  derive  their 
revenue  largely  from  local  sources  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  state  subsidy  ($250)  for  special  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture. 

Public  education  is  a well  established  function  of  govern- 
ment. Special  education  for  industrial  classes  is  its  most 
recent  development.  All  government  functions  are,  in  the 
end,  limited  by  the  power  and  equity  of  taxation.  If  of 
equal  efficiency,  that  type  of  education  will  persist  which 
imposes  the  lightest  burden  upon  the  public.  The  chief 
factors  which  determine  relative  values  are: 

I. — The  ideals 

II. — The  curriculum 

HI. — ^The  distribution  of  students 

IV. — The  cost  per  unit  attendance. 

Ideals 

It  would  seem  that  all  institutions  engaged  in  agricultural 
teaching  in  Wisconsin  are  inspired  by  common  ideals.  If 
there  be  differences  in  ideals,  these  are  not  yet  apparent; 
besides  there  is  no  means  of  accurately  determining  if  such 
differences  do  really  exist.  The  matter  of  ideals  must  there- 
fore be  passed  without  effort  at  analysis. 

The  Curriculum 

The  curricla  of  these  institutions,  so  far  as  agricultural 
teaching  is  concerned,  are  more  or  less  in  a state  of  flux. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


47 


That  there  is  a wide  variation  in  the  courses  of  study  of 
both  high  schools  and  county  schools  of  agriculture  becomes 
apparent  from  the  most  casual  examination  of  their  liter- 
ature. 

There  is  an  evident  trend,  however,  on  the  part  of  the 
special  schools  toward  a standard  four  year  high  school  course 
whose  completion  will  fit  for  college.  Whether  this  can  be 
taken  to  mean  a change  in  the  purpose  of  the  special  school 
, or  simply  an  enlargement  of  its  scope  and  function,  is  still 
an  unsettled  question.  It  may  indicate  the  dominance  by 
customary  educational  ideals  of  this  particular  type  of  school. 

Whatever  this  trend  means,  it  is  true  that  the  differences 
between  high  school  courses  in  agriculture  and  those  of  the 
special  school  are  growing  less  and  less  apparent. 


The  value  of  any  educational  institution  to  the  masses 
is  directly  proportional  to  its  accessibility,  as  has  already 
been  shown  in  connection  with  the  study  of  school  attend- 


Each  dot  represents  the  location  of  one  student  attending  the  Racine  County 
School  of  Agriculture,  located  at  Rochester.  In  addition  14  students  were  in 
attendance  from  other  counties. 


ance  in  Iowa  county  and  as  is  further  emphasized  by  the 
accompanying  map. 

A study  of  the  distribution  of  student  attendance  reveals 
the  fact  that  distance  from  school,  good  roads,  and  other 


Distribution  of  Students 


• BOYS 
o GIRLS 


FIG.  19.— WHERE  THE  STUDENTS  COME  FROM 


48 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 


means  of  transportation  are  important  factors  in  determining 
the  attendance  in  educational  institutions.  A comparison 
of  the  maps  showing  distribution  of  students  attending  the 
Racine  County  School  of  Agriculture  and  the  Richland 
Center  High  School  appears  to  show  that  type  of  institu- 
tion has  little  effect  upon  student  attendance.  These  maps 


•o° 

• • 

o 

• o 

o 

o 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

o • 

• 

o* 

o 

- o o e • 

o • • 

• • 

o 

o 

o oo 
oo 

• 

o 

o 

• 

• 

• • 

o • o 

• 

o • 

o 

MO  ^rilC/iLArfD 

O .%  . V 

o 

o 

o 

o o 

.•o° 

o°o°  . 

• 

O • 

o 

• 

o 

o 

oo 

\ 

oo 

^ • 

• BOYS 

o GIRLS 

fig.  20.— location  of  homes  of  students 

Each  dot  represents  the  home  of  one  pupil  attending  the  Richland  Center 
High  School.  In  addition  4 pupils  came  from  outside  the  county.  Compare 
this  map  with  the  preceding. 

do  not  indicate  the  number  in  attendance  from  the  towns 
in  which  these  schools  are  located  but  show  the  general 
rather  than  the  local  influence  of  these  institutions. 

Similar  studies  made  by  others  are  corroborative  of  the 
conclusion  that  type  of  institution  is  of  far  less  importance 
in  determining  its  radius  of  influence  than  is  its  accessibility. 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education 


49 


The  Cost  of  Instruction 

Below  are  submitted  data  showing  annual  cost  of  instruc- 
tion, per  student  enrolled,  in  the  two  types  of  secondary 
agricultural  schools  in  Wisconsin.  It  is  recognized  that  these 
figures  are  not  wholly  comparable  but  they  will  at  least 
serve  as  a basis  for  judgment  as  to  the  relative  cost  of  agri- 
cultural education  in  these  institutions. 


Table  VII. — Cost  of  Instruction  and  Maintenance  per  Student  in 
THE  County  Schools  of  Agriculture  and  Domestic  Economy 
FOR  THE  Year  Ending  June  30,  1915 


School 

Cost  of 

instruction  (only) 

Cost  of 
maintenance 

Total 

A 

$98.71 

127.14 

$85.49 

69.78 

$184.20 

196.92 

B 

C 

166.26 

95.61 

261 .87 

D 

214.28 

54.26 

268.54 

E { 

150.78 

140.14 

290.92 

F 

152.38 

205.29 

357.67 

G 

152.30 

207 . 43 

359.73 

Average 

151.69 

122.57 

274.26 

Based  on  average  daily  attendance. 


It  should  be  added  that  several  of  these  institutions  are 
carrying  on  business  operations  in  connection  therewith. 
The  income  from  the  business,  as  shown  by  the  annual  re- 
ports to  office  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, has  been  deducted  in  each  instance  before  dividing 
maintenance  among  the  average  number  of  students  in  at- 
tendance for  the  year.  The  figures,  therefore,  represent  net 
cost  for  instruction  and  maintenance  which  must  be  raised 
by  public  taxation.  Revenue  from  the  business  operations 
carried  on  by  these  institutions  does  not  necessarily  repre- 
sent profit.  This  item  will*  be  affected  by  the  system  of 
bookkeeping  in  vogue  in  each  institution. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  some  of  these  schools  have 
developed  extension  work,  so  that  this  activity  now  consumes 
a considerable  portion  of  the  time  of  their  instructors.  FIow- 
ever,  no  statistics,  showing  the  relative  proportion  of  time 
spent  in  teaching  and  extension,  are  available.  The  in- 
structors are  usually  hired  by  the  year  while  the  law  requires 
but  eight  months  of  actual  teaching.  If  we  assume,  there- 
fore, that  one-third  of  the  cost  of  instruction  in  these  schools 


50  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  40 

is  chargeable  to  extension  work,  we  have  only  to  take  two- 
thirds  of  the  amounts  shown  in  the  above  tables  to  find  the 
actual  cost  of  instruction  of  students  in  these  institutions. 


Table  VIII. — Cost  of  Instruction  and  Maintenance  per  Student 
IN  High  Schools  for  the  Year  Ending  June  30,  1915 


Highest 

Lowest 

Average 

Cost  of  instruction 

$103.84 

$29.65 

$44.22 

25.00 

Cost  of  maintenance 

67.15 

13.56 

Based  on  average  daily  attendance  in  75  high  schools  receiving  state  aid  for 
instruction  in  agriculture. 


The  statistics  from  which  the  costs  of  instruction  were 
computed  are  complete  for  each  of  the  seventy-five  schools. 
In  order  to  compute  the  cost  of  maintenance  it  was  neces- 
sary to  base  the  calculations  wholly  upon  data  furnished  by 
township  and  union  high  schools.  These  schools  are  required 
by  law  to  keep  separate  accounts  even  if  associated  with  the 
grades  of  the  village  in  which  the  high  school  is  located.  In 
the  case  of  district  high  schools  the  cost  of  maintenance  is 
so  involved  with  that  of  the  graded  school  system  that 
reliable  statistics  could  not  be  obtained.  It  was,  therefore, 
impossible  to  calculate  averages  for  the  whole  group  so  far 
as  maintenance  is  concerned.  Totals  are  necessarily  omitted. 

A better  idea  of  the  costs  of  instruction  in  these  seventy- 
five  high  schools  can  be  obtained  by  arranging  them  in  groups 
as  follows: — 


Cost  per  student 

Number 

schools 

Below  $30 

1 

$30  to  $40 

16 

$40  to  $50 

25 

$50  to  $60 

13 

$60  to  $70 

12 

$70  to  $80 

3 

$80  to  $90 

3 

$90  to  $100 

1 

♦Over  $100 

1 

♦This  school  had  a total  enrollment  of  sixteen  students. 


The  average  daily  attendance  in  each  of  the  eight  schools 
showing  the  highest  cost  of  instruction  per  student  (over  |70) 


Factors  Which  Influence  Rural  Education  51 

was  13,  33,  21,  32,  27,  55,  30  and  31,  respectively.*  The 
average  daily  attendance  in  each  of  the  eight  schools  show- 
ing the  lowest  cost  of  instruction  per  student  ($35  or  less) 
was  234,  178,  274,  93,  53,  301,  167,  and  92,  respectivelv.* 


Higher  Cost  of  Agricultural  Instruction 

While  supporting  statistics  are  insufficient  to  warrant 
definite  deductions,  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  the  addi- 
tion of  so-called  vocational”  subjects  to  the  curriculum  of 
any  school  increases  the  per  capita  cost  of  both  instruction 
and  maintenance. 

The  increased  cost  due  to  the  introduction  of  agriculture 
into  the  curricula  of  small  schools  must  be  offset  (so  far 
as  is  possible)  by  the  elimination  of  less  important  subject 
matter — if  agriculture  is  to  have  a permanent  place  in  our 
system  of  education. 

^Arranged  in  order  of  cost,  highest  to  lowest,  lowest  to  highest. 


Parts  I and  II  of  this  bulletin  were  prepared  by  Eugene 
Merritt,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Education,  States  Rela- 
tions Service,  United  States  Department  of  Agricluture, 
and  K.  L.  Hatch,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Education  in 
the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
under  supervision  of  C.  H.  Lane,  Chief  Specialist  in  Agri- 
cultural Education  for  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Valuable  assistance  was  rendered  by  Jesse  A. 
Van  Natta,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Iowa  county,  and 
0.  C.  Stine,  a graduate  student  in  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin in  the  compilation  of  the  material  used  in  this  publica- 
tion, particularly  that  on  the  rural  schools  of  Iowa  county. 


Research  Bulletin  41 


November,  1916 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates  by  Agri- 
cultural Crops,  Including  a New 
Theory  Regarding  the  Feed- 
ing Power  of  Plants 


E.  TRUOG 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Introduction 1 

Importance  of  subject 1 

Problems  involved 2 

Historical  summary 3 

Experiments  on  utilization  of  different  phosphates  by  various  plants. . . . 11 

Materials  used  in  pot  cultures 12 

Arrangement  and  care  of  pot  cultures 13 

Results  of  pot  cultures — data  and  figures 14 

Discussion  of  results 21 

The  availability  of  ferric  and  aluminum  phosphates 24 

The  availability  of  tricalcium  and  trimagnesium  phosphates 26 

The  feeding  power  of  plants — A New  Theory 27 

The  lime  needs  of  plants..... 33 

The  feeding  power  of  plants  under  soil  conditions 37 

The  effect  of  form  of  nitrogen  salt  on  availability  of  phosphates 39 

Chemical  analyses  of  plants  grown  on  various  phosphates 41 

Content  of  total  phosphorus  and  relation  to  function  of  magnesium. . 41 
Content  of  organic  and  inorganic  phospnorus  and  nitrogen  and 

relation  to  function  of  magnesium 43 

Content  of  manganese  in  plants 44 

Applications  to  practice  and  need  of  further  investigation 45 

Summary 47 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates  by  Agricultural 
Crops,  including  a New  Theory  Regarding 
the  Feeding  Power  of  Plants* 


Although  compared  to  the  Eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  especially  to  Europe,  the  oldest  farmed  soils  of 
Wisconsin  have  been  cropped  only  a comparatively  short 
time,  yet  conclusive  field  tests  show  that  many  of  these 
Wisconsin  soils  are  already  badly  in  need  of  phosphate 
fertilizers.  This,  together  with  the  enormous  consumption 
of  phosphate  fertilizers  in  Europe,  points  unmistakably  to 
a time  in  the  near  future  when  Wisconsin  must  also  use 
large  amounts  of  these  fertilizers  if  the  productivity  of  her 
soils  is  to  be  maintained.  Accurate  knowledge  regarding 
the  most  economical  methods  of  phosphate  fertilization  and 
of  maintaining  the  soil  phosphates  in  a condition  in  which 
the  crops  may  readily  use  them,  under  the  particular  Wis- 
consin soil  conditions,  is  thus  a matter  of  great  practical 
importance.  An  investigation  of  this  subject  was  thus 
started  several  years  ago  and  the  present  bulletin  is  a prog- 
ress report  of  the  investigation.  Along  certain  lines 
definite  additions  to  our  knowledge  have  been  made  and  are 
reported  herein.  / 

In  a former  bulletin^  datalwas/presented  supporting  the 
general  contention  that  decaying  organic  matter  exerts  a 
solvent  action  on  raw  rock  phosphate  and  thus  increases  its 
availability  to  crops.  In  connection  with  the  previous  in- 
vestigation four  important  questions, ' which  were  not  as 
completely  answered  in  the  literature  as  desired,  arose:  viz.; 

(1)  What  differences  are  there  in  the  direct  feeding  powers 
of  the  common  agricultural  plants  for  raw  rock  phosphate? 

*The  investigation  reported  in  this  bulletin  has  been  in  progress  since  1911, 
during  which  time  the  writer  has  received  a large  amount  of  assistance  on  this 
subject  from  various  sources.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Professor  A.  R.  Whitson 
for  suggestions,  criticisms,  and  facilities  for  carrying  on  the  work,  and  to  A.  L. 
Buser,  C.  F.  Frye,  A.  N.  Johnson,  O.  J.  Noer,  C.  B.  Post,  C.  Thompson  and  T.  Y. 
Tang  for  valuable  assistance,  each  of  whom  worked  on  some  phase  of  the  subject 
in  fulfdlment  of  the  bachelor’s  thesis.  The  writer  is  especially  indebted  to  T.  Y. 
Tang,  Fellow  in  Soils  (1913-14),  whose  painstaking  efforts  in  plant  house  and 
chemical  work  contributed  very  materially  to  the  results. 

‘ Wis.  Expt.  Sta.,  Research  Bui.  20.  Published  January,  1912. 


2 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


'(2)  What  is  the  general  underlying  cause  for  such  differ- 
ences as  exist  in  the  feeding  powers  of  plants? 

(3)  What  is  the  action  of  accompanying  fertilizers  on  the 
availability  of  rock  phosphate? 

(4)  What  differences  are  there  in  the  availabilities  to 
agricultural  plants  of  the  various  phosphates  commonly 
assumed  to  be  present  in  soils? 

Questions  (1),  (2),  and  (3)  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  use  of  raw  rock  phosphate,  especially  in  planning 
systems  of  rotation  which  are  best  adapted  to  make  use  of 
this  form  of  phosphate  and  in  the  interpretation  of  plant 
house  and  field  experiments  on  this  subject.  The  last  ques- 
tion has  a direct  bearing  on  the  ultimate  availability  of 
phosphorus  applied  in  different  phosphate  fertilizers,  for 
phosphates,  whether  applied  in  soluble  forms  or  in  forms 
that  become  soluble  by  means  of  the  processes  taking  place 
in  soils,  are  eventually,  to  a large  extent,  precipitated  in 
combination  with  the  various  bases  existing  in  soils.  A type 
set  of  reactions  which  undoubtedly  take  place  when  rock 
phosphate  is  applied  to  soils  may  be  represented  as  follows 

(1)  Ca3(P04)2  +2H2C03^IZ^Ca2H2  (POO2  + Ca  H2(C03)2 

(2)  Ca2ll2  (P04)2f2  Fe(OH)3^IZ^2  FePO.+2Ca(OH)2  + 
2H2O 

Other  bases:  e.g.,  magnesia,  alumina  and  possibly  in  cer- 
tain cases  manganous  oxide,  may  take  the  place  of  the 
ferric  oxide  in  the  second  Reaction  and  form  the  correspond- 
ing phosphates.  The  presence  of  considerable  calcium  car- 
bonate in  the  soil  may  cause  a reversion  back  to  tricalcium 
phosphate.  Phosphates  made  soluble  by  the  first  reaction 
may  be  taken  up  directly  by  growing  plants  without  enter- 
ing into  the  second  reaction. 

Due,  however,  to  the  facts  that  the  feeding  roots^  of  a 
plant,  at  any  one  time,  come  into  contact  with  only  a small 
portion  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  soil,  and  that  a plant 
lakes  up  only  a limited  amount  of  phosphorus,  it  seems 
probable,  that  at  least  in  acid  soils,  reactions  similar  to  num- 
ber (2)  proceed  to  some  extent  during  the  entire  growing 
season.  The  application  of  phosphates  in  soluble  forms  pre- 

* In  this  connection  see  the  work  of  Georgievics,  Monatsch.  f.  Ghem.  12  (1891) 
5(>h. 

» See  Nohbe,  Landw.  Vers.  Sta.,  52  (1899)  473. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


3 


sents  very  favorable  conditions  for  reactions  of  type  number 
(2)  to  take  place.  The  availability  to  plants  of  the  different 
phosphates  formed  according  to  the  second  reaction  is  thus 
of  considerable  interest  and  importance  and  has  previously 
attracted  the  attention  of  a number  of  investigators. 

Historical  vSummary 

Since  the  early  writings  of  Liebig^  on  the  role  of  the 
plant  itself,  in  making  mineral  elements  available,  the  re- 
port of  Sachs’^  experiment  in  1860  which  demonstrated  that 
plant  roots  are  able  to  corrode  marble  plates,  and  the  re- 
port of  Czapek’s®  extensive  investigations  in  1896  which  in- 
dicated that  carbonic  acid  is  the  only  acid  given  off  in  con- 
siderable amounts  by  live  plant  roots,  many  experiments 
have  been  reported  on  the  feeding  power  of  plants,  in  which 
the  insoluble  phosphates  were  mixed  with  a soil  medium 
consisting  of  quartz  sand. 

One  of  the  earliest  extensive  investigations  with  phos- 
phates in  which  quartz  sand  was  used  is  reported  by  the 
Maine  Experiment  Station,  where  at  first  Balentine^  and 
later  Merrill^  investigated  the  subject.  Merrill  used  acid 
phosphate,  rock  phosphate  and  redondite  (a  phosphate  of 
aluminum  and  iron),  in  quartz  sand  cultures  and  grew  eight- 
een species  of  plants.  He  found  that  acid  rock  gave  the 
best  returns  in  all  cases  and  especially  with  the  graminae. 
With  graminae,  redondite  gave  better  results  than  rock 
phosphate,  but  in  other  cases  the  reverse  was  true.  Plants 
of  the  cruciferae  family  were  especially  strong  feeders  on 
rock  phosphate.  Balentine  states  that  the  sand  used  con- 
tained 0.012  per  cent  of  phosphoric  anhydride  and  Merrill 
also  states  that  it  contained  traces  of  phosphorus  in  an  in- 
soluble form.  Apparently  the  presence  of  this  phosphorus, 
introduced  by  the  sand  itself,  has  been  more  of  a disturbing 
factor  than  might  at  first  be  supposed.  With  many  of  the 
plants  the  blanks  gave  as  large,  and  in  several  cases  larger, 
growths  than  those  which  received  rock  phosphate  and 
redondite.  On  the  average  the  growths  of  the  blanks  were 
nearly  one-half  as  large  as  the  growths  of  those  that  received 

* Ann.  Chem.  U.  Phar.  105  (1858)  139. 

6  Bot.  Zeit.  1860,  117. 

6 Jahrb.  Wissen.  Rot.  29  (1896)  321. 

7 Maine  Expt.  Sta.,  Ann.  Rept.  (1893)  13. 

8 Maine  Expt.  Sta.,  Ann.  Rept.  (1898)  65. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


acid  phosphate,  indicating  that  at  least  some  of  the  plants 
made  considerable  use  of  the  phosphorus  originally  present. 
Notwithstanding  this  disturbing  influence,  the  Maine  in- 
vestigations bring  out  conclusively  the  remarkable  differ- 
ences that  exist  in  the  foraging  power  of  different  species 
of  plants  for  insoluble  phosphates. 

Some  of  the  most  extensive  and  important  experiments 
reported  dealing  directly  with  the  subject  under  discussion 
are  those  by  Prianischnikov. ® After  conducting  elaborate, 
pot  culture  investigations  on  this  subject  with  quartz  and 
soil  over  a period  of  more  than  ten  years  he  concluded  that 
the  availability  of  a fertilizer  is  influenced  by  the  nature  of 
the  plant,  the  soil,  the  fertilizer,  and  by  the  interaction  of 
accompanying  fertilizers.  ' 

Prianischnikov  classified  plants  into  two  groups  as  regards 
their  feeding  power  on  phosphorite.*  Lupines,  peas,  buck- 
wheat, and  mustard  were  placed  in  the  group  having  a strong 
feeding  power  and  cereals  in  the  group  having  a weak  feed- 
ing power. 

He  also  found  as  follows:  Phosphorite  was  much  more 
effective  as  a source  of  phosphorus  when  used  on  acid  soils 
than  when  used  on  the  non-acid  ones.  The  addition  of  34  to 
1 per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate  to  the  cultures  resulted  in  a 
greatly  decreased  availability  of  the  phosphorite,  but  usu- 
ally did  not  materially  effect  the  availability  of  dicalicum 
phosphate,  mono-potassium  phosphate,  Thomas  slag  and 
iron  and  aluminum  phosphates.  The  use  of  ammonium 
nitrate  or  a combination  of  ammonium  sulphate  and  sodium 
nitrate  instead  of  sodium  nitrate  as  a source  of  nitrogen  ' 
resulted  in  a greatly  increased  availability  of  the  phosphorite 
to  plants  having  weak  feeding  powers  even  when  moderate 
amounts  of  calcium  carbonate  were  added.  The  phos- 
phorus of  precipitated  iron  and  aluminum  phosphates  was 
found  to  be  readily  available  to  plants. 

The  results  showing  that  plants  could  obtain  their  re- 
quired phosphorus  from  precipitated  iron  and  aluminum 
phosphate  was  at  first  taken  by  Prianischnikov^ ° as  an  indi- 
cation that  either  plants  secrete  other  acids  than  carbonic  or 
else  carbonic  acid  has  a more  marked  solvent  action  on  these 

• » Landw.  Vers.  Sta..  56  (1902)  107;  Ibid,  65  (1907)  23;  Ibid,  75  (1911)  357;  Ber.  j 

Dent.  Hot.  Gesel.  22  (1904)  184.  tj 

♦The  term  phosphorite  is  used  in  Europe  in  place  of  rock  phosphate.  ; 

>0  Ucr.  Deut.  Bot.  Gesel.  22  (1904)  184.  !l 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


5 


/ 


phosphates  than  it  is  supposed  to  have.  Later  he  learned 
that  pure  water  has  a sufficiently  marked  solvent  action  by 
hydrolysis  on  these  phosphates  to  account  for  the  avail- 
ability of  their  phosphorus  to  plants. He  then  pointed  out 
the  unsuitability  of  these  phosphates  for  demonstrating 
acid  root  excretions.  The  correctness  of  Czapek’s  conclu- 
sion, that  plants  excrete  no  other  free  acids  than  carbonic, 
is  not  disputed  but  simply  the  method  of  proof,  in  which 
aluminum  phosphate  was  used. 

Prianischnikov  found  that  when  the  nitrogen  was  sup- 
plied as  sodium  nitrate,  the  cultures  usually  became  alkaline, 
when  as  ammonium  nitrate,  neutral,  and  when  as  ammon- 
ium sulphate,  acid.  The  increased  availability  of  phos- 
phorite when  used  in  conjunction  with  ammonium  salts 
over  that  when  sodium  nitrate  had  been  used  was  explained 
by  him  as  follows:  Ammonium^  sulphate  probably  functions 
as  a physiologically  acid  salt  and  sodium  nitrate  as  a physio- 
logically basic  salt.  That  is,  plants  by  using  more  of  the 
basic  part  of  ammonium  sulphate  than  of  the  acid  part 
leave  an  acid  residue  which  makes  the  phosphorite  available; 
and  by  using  more  of  the  acid  part  of  sodium  nitrate  than 
of  the  basic  part,  leave  a basic  residue  which  has  an  un-/ 
favorable  action  on  the  availability  of  phosphorite.  The 
favorable  action  of  ammonium  nitrate  is  also  probably  due 
to  its  action  on  the  physiological  activity  of  the  plant.  It 
may  make  possible  the  regulation  of  the  reaction  of  they 
nutrient  medium,  since  the  plant  may  take  its  nitrogen' 
either  from  the  acid  or  basic  part  of  the  salt  and  thus  pre- 
vent an  overbalance  of  bases  which  act  unfavorably  on  the 
availability  of  phosphorite  or  an  overbalance  of  acids  which 
act  unfavorably  on  plant  growth. 

In  1899,  Schloesing^  reported  the  results  of  pot  experi- 
ments with  quartz  sand  which  showed  that  plants  can  obtain 
their  phosphorus  from  very  dilute  solutions,  that  is,  solutions  - 
- containing  only  one  to  two  milligrams  of  phosphoric  anhy/ 
dride  per  liter.  Wheat,  corn,  beans,  and  buckwheat  were 
grown  in  these  experiments.  The  importance  to  the  plant 
of  the  phosphates  naturally  dissolved  in  the  soil  solution 
is  pointed  out. 

P.  Kossowitsch  and  his  assistants  during  a period  of  about 

“Landw.  Vers.  Sta.  75  (1911)  372. 

12  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.  T.  1 (1899)  321. 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


10  years  carried  on  very  extensive  and  valuable  experiments 
dealing  directly  with' the  subject  under  discussion.  In  1898 
and  1900,  Kossowitsch^^  reported  the  results  of  experiments 
with  quartz  cultures,  showing  that  there  is  a great  difference 
in  the  feeding  power  of  different  species  of  plants  for  phos- 
phorite. Evidently  the  quartz  used  contained  some  phos- 
phorus since  the  blanks  in  many  cases  gave  a considerable 
growth.  In  1901  he^^  reported  the  results  of  pot  experi- 
ments with  a soil  that  needed  a phosphate  fertilizer.  These 
results  show  that  all  the  plants  which  were  grown  used  the 
phosphorus  of  phosphorite  to  a considerable  extent.  The 
mustard  and  buckwheat  exhibited  especially  strong  feeding 
powers,  making  nearly  as  large  growths  with  phosphorite 
as  with  Thomas  slag. 

In  1902,  Kossowitsch^^  reported  the  results  of  experiments 
on  the  role  of  plants  in  dissolving  insoluble  plant  food 
materials.  Phosphorite  in  quartz  cultures  was  used  for  the 
insoluble  material.  The  special  point  in  these  experiments 
was  the  determination  of  the  solvent  action  of  the  plant 
roots  themselves,  aside  from  the  solvent  action  which  the 
nutrient  solution  might  exert.  This  was  accomplished  in 
the  following  way  with  two  sets  of  cylinders:  In  the  first 
set  the  plants  were  grown  in  a cylinder  in  which  the  phos- 
phorite was  mixed  with  the  sand,  and  five  litres  of  nutrient 
solution  were  allowed  to  pass  through  daily.  In  the  second 
set  the  plants  were  grown  in  a cylinder  which  contained  no 
phosphorite,  but  received  the  nutrient  solution  after  it  passed 
through  a cylinder  that  contained  quartz  and  phosphorite, 
but  on  which  no  plants  were  growing.  In  the  second  set 
the  plants  made  very  little  growth  compared  to  the  first  set 
\ showing  that  the  plant  roots  themselves  and  not  the  nutrient 
solution  were  active  in  making  the  phosphorite  available. 

Kossowitsch  also  repeated,  experiments  similar  to  those 
of  Schloesing,  and  obtained  similar  results.  Peas,  flax  and 
mustard  were  grown.  Flax  which,  relatively,  had  little 
power  to  utilize  the  phosphorus  of  phosphorite  made  a con- 
siderable growth  when  the  nutrient  solution  applied  con- 
tained only  1.3  mgm.  of  phosphoric  anhydride  per  liter,  in- 
dicating that  the  relative  feeding  power  of  plants  for  phos- 

**  Compte.  rendu  du  Lab.  agron.  du  Minist.  de  I’agr  1898,  226  and  Russ.  Jr. 
Expt.  Landw.  1 (1900)  657. 

“ Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.  2 (1901)  730. 

Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.  3 (1902)  145. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


7 


phorite  is  not  determined  solely  by  their  ability  to  utilize 
the  phosphates  of  dilute  solutions. 

In  this  same  report  Kossowitsch  stated  that  the  solvent 
action  of  plants  is  probably  mainly  due  to  the  carbonic  acid 
which  the  roots  excrete,  and  differences  in  feeding  powers  of 
different  species  of  plants  are  probably  due  to  differences  in 
the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  excreted  by  the  roots. 

In  1904  and  1906,  Kossowitsch^®  reported  the  results  of 
experiments  on  the  quantitative  determination  of  the 
amounts  of  carbonic  acid  excreted  by  the  roots  of  mustard, 
barley  and  flax  plants.  The  roots  of  all  three  species  of 
plants  gave  off  very  notable  amounts  of  carbonic  acid,  but 
the  differences  in  amount  did  not  allow  the  drawing  of  any 
definite  relations  between  the  feeding  powers  of  plants  and 
their  capacity  to  excrete  carbonic  acid. 

In  1904,  Kossowitsch^^  reported  the  results  of  carefully 
controlled  experiments  relative  to  the  effect  of  ammonium 
salts  on  the  availability  of  phosphorite.  The  possibility  of 
nitrification  being  a factor  was  carefully  controlled.  The 
results  confirmed  those  of  Prianischnikov  which  have  al- 
ready been  given. 

In  1909,  Kossowitsch^^  reported  a summary  of  his  work 
on  the  utilization  of  phosphorite  by  mustard,  clover,  oats 
and  flax,  involving  the  use  of  acid  and  non-acid  soils,  and 
also  calcium  carbonate.  When  the  phosphorite  was  applied 
to  decidedly  acid  soils,  all  of  the  plants  exhibited  marked 
powers  to  utilize  the  phosphorus  therein.  As  regards  their 
relative  feeding  powers  to  utlize  phosphorite  the  four  plants 
stood  in  the  following  order:  mustard,  clover,  oats,  and  flax. 
Under  alkaline  conditions  of  soil  this  power  of  mustard  to 
utilize  the  phosphorite  was  not  markedly  reduced  but  with 
the  other  plants  it  decreased  decidedly.  As  regards  the 
utilization  of  the  phosphorus  naturally  present  in  the  soil 
the  plants  showed  an  entirely  different  order  of  feeding 
powers  than  for  phosphorite.  In  this  case  oats  and  flax  had 
the  strongest  feeding  powers  and  mustard  the  lowest. 

In  conclusion  Kossowitsch  stated  that  the  subject  is  very 
complicated  and  many  factors  need  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  order  to  explain  the  utilization  of  various  phos- 


Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.  5 (1904)  493  and  7 (1906)  251. 
Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.  5 (1904)  598. 

18  Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.  10  (1909)  839. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


phates  by  different  plants.  He  did  not  offer  explanations 
for  many  of  the  various  experimental  results  that  he  had 
obtained. 

Nagaoka^®  investigated  the  immediate  and  after  effect  of 
applying  various  phosphates  to  soil  cultures  on  the  growth 
of  rice  plants.  The  experiment  was  carried  on  for  a period 
of  four  years  and  the  soil  had  been  previously  exhausted. 
Different  phosphates  were  used  as  follows:  double  super- 
phosphate as  a standard,  ferric  phosphate,  ferrous  phosphate, 
aluminum  phosphate,  and  tricalcium  phosphate.  The  order 
of  efficiency  of  the  different  phosphates  over  the  four  year’s 
period  as  indicated  by  the  growths  produced  is  given  in 
Table  I. 


Table  I. — Order  of  Efficiency  of  Different  Phosphates  Over 
Four  Years’  Period 


Year 

Super- 

phosphate 

Ferric 

phosphate 

Ferrous 

phosphate 

Aluminum 

phosphate 

Tricalcium 

phosphate 

First 

3 

1 

5 

4 

2 

Second 

4 

2 

5 

1 

3 

Third 

5 

2 

3 

1 

4 

Fourth 

3 

4 

5 

2 

1 

These  results  indicate  that  ferric  and  aluminum  phos- 
phates were  quite  effective  on  this  soil  in  supplying  the  rice 
plant  with  phosphorus.  However,  it  is  important  to  note 
that  the  ferric  phosphate  became  less  available  to  succeeding 
crops  while  the  tricalcium  phosphate  in  comparison  to  the 
other  phosphates  showed  the  highest  availability  the  fourth 
year. 

Elliot  and  HilP®  found  that  in  many  cases  ferric  and  alum- 
inum phosphates  were  superior  to  calcium  phosphate.  The 
amounts  of  phosphates  used  and  the  growths  secured  were, 
however,  too  small  and  preclude  the  drawing  of  conclusions. 

Jordan^i  carried  on  experiments  much  similar  to  those  by 
Merrill  of  Maine,  and  confirmed  Merrill’s  results. 

After  conducting  extensive  investigations  on  the  phos- 
phate needs  of  Texas  soils,  Fraps^^  concluded  that  among 
several  things  the  nature  of  the  plant  which  is  used  as  the 

Bui.  Col.  Agr.,  Tokyo,  Imp.  Univ.,  6 (1904)  215. 

*oVa.  Expt.  Sta.,  Ann.  Rept.  (1909-10)  144. 

N.  Y.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Hul.  358  (1913). 

**  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  28  (1906)  823.  See  also  Bui.  126,  Texas  Agr.  Expt.  Sta. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


9 


indicator  in  pot  tests  is  an  important  factor  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  results  obtained,  and  correlation  with  data 
of  chemical  analyses. 

Wheeler^^  and  his  associates  at  Rhode  Island  have  con- 
ducted extensive  field  investigations  with  different  phos- 
phates. The  results  bring  out  marked  differences  in  the 
utilization  of  the  various  phosphates  by  the  different  species 
of  plants. 

Lately  Burlison^^  of  Illinois  has  reported  the  results  of 
extensive  quartz  pot  culture  investigations  on  the  utiliza- 
tion of  rock  phosphate  by  several  crops.  Since  he  supplied 
the  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonium  nitrate,  the  results 
must  be  carefully  considered,  keeping  in  mind  the  marked 
influence  of  ammoniun  salts  on  the  availability  of  rock 
phosphate.  In  this  connection  see  Table  XV. 

No  pretense  is  made  at  having  given  a complete  list  of 
references  that  have  a bearing  on  the  four  questions  stated 
on  pages  1-2.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  references 
given  are  among  the  most  important,  and  that  they  cover 
the  field  in  such  a way  that  further  references  would  add 
little  to  what  has  already  been  said.  References  to  field 
investigations  have  been  largely  purposely  avoided,  since 
such  investigations  cannot  be  controlled  sufficiently  to  fur- 
nish data  for  establishing  the  basal  and  fundamental  prin- 
' ciples  underlying  this  subject.  This  is  no  reflection  on  field 
experiments  as  it  is  clearly  recognized  that  they  are  all 
important  in  testing  out  the  practical  application  of  scientific 
investigations  along  these  lines. 

The  status  of  knowledge  at  the  time  the  present  investi- 
gation was  started  regarding  the  four  questions  previously 
stated  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Investigations  had  shown  that  great  differences  exist 
in  the  feeding  power  of  agricultural  plants  for  rock  phos- 

_ phate,  but  determinations  of  this  feeding  power  for  many 
of  the  common  agricultural  plants  under  adequately  con-/ 
trolled  conditions  had  not  been  made. 

(2)  A satisfactory  explanation  why  different  species  of 
plants  should  vary  so  much  in  their  feeding  power  had  never 
been  given. 

(3)  The  greatly  increased  availability  of  the  phosphorus 

« R.  I.  Agr.  Expt.  sta.  Bui.  118  and  163. 

Jour.  Agr.  Res.  VI  (1916)  485. 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


in  rock  phosphate  when  used  in  conjunction  with  ammon- 
ium salts  had  not  been  fully  explained. 

(4)  It  had  been  frequently  stated  that  the  phosphorus  of 
soils  in  the  form  of  iron  and  aluminum  phosphates  is  of  very 
lo  / availability  to  plants,  although  the  experiments  of 
several  investigators  cited  showed  conclusively  that  preci- 
pitated iron  and  aluminum  phosphates  serve  as  readily 
available  sources  of  phosphorus  for  plants,  including  even 
those  that  are  weak  feeders  on  rock  phosphate.  This  had 
not  been  explained  satisfactorily. 

It  was  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  supplementing  the 
knowledge  regarding  these  four  questions  that  the  present 
investigation  was  undertaken. 

In  a preliminary  report  in  1912  the  writer^^  in  discussing 
the  solution  of  soil  phosphates  and  the  feeding  of  plants, 
pointed  out  that  the  progress  of  the  reactions  involved  are 
best  explained  by  means  of  the  law  of  mass  action  and  chem- 
ical equilibrium.  In  the  solution  of  rock  phosphate  by  the 
carbonic  acid  given  off  by  decaying  organic  matter  and  live 
plant  roots  it  was  indicated  that  in  order  for  the  reaction 
to  continue  indefinitely  both  of  the  products  of  the  reaction 
(calcium  acid  phosphate  and  calcium  bicarbonate)  must  be 
removed  either  in  the  drainage  water  or  by  the  roots  of 
growing  plants.  This  naturally  led  to  the  possibility  of 
finding  a relationship  between  the  feeding  powers  of  dilferent 
plants  for  the  phosphorus  of  rock  phosphate  and  the  cal- 
cium oxide  content  of  these  plants.  That  is,  plants  which 
are  strong  feeders  on  rock  phosphate  should  have  a higher 
calcium  oxide  content  than  those  that  are  weak  feeders.  In 
applying  this  hypothesis  to  the  experimental  results  of  pot 
cultures,  it  was  found  to  agree  in  all  but  a few  cases.  The 
publication  of  this  as  a theory  regarding  the  feeding  power 
of  plants  was  thus,  because  of  these  few  cases,  delayed  until 

26  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  20.  On  page  46  there  is  stated  as  follows:  “It 

is  most  important  to  recognize  that  the  carbon  dioxide  given  off  by  the  plant  roots 
exercises  its  solvent  action  under  conditions  which  have  never  been  imitated  in  the 
laboratory.  The  reaction  proceeding  when  carbon  dioxide  acts  on  phosphates 
must  be  considered  as  of  the  nature  of  a balanced  action.”  Also  on  pages  49-50 
there  is  stated  as  follows:  “In  the  composting  experiments,  the  dissolved  phosphates 

and  carbonates  are  not  removed  from  the  field  of  action  and  hence  the  reaction 
bringing  phosphates  into  solution  quickly  reaches  a state  of  equilibrium,  a^er 
which  any  further  production  of  carbon  dioxide  is  dissipated  to  the  atmosphere  and 
aids  nothing  in  bringing  phosphates  into  solution. 

“Under  field  conditions  the  movements  of  soil  water  and  the  feeding  of  crops  are 
constantly  removing  dissolved. phosphates  and  carbonates  from  the  little  centers  of 
solution  existing  as  fragments  of  organic  material  where  intensive  carbon  dioxide 
production  takes  place.  This  continued  removal  of  the  dissolved  substances 
results  in  conditions  under  which  the  efficiency  of  carbon  dioxide  as  a solvent  is 
greatly  increased.” 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


11 


what  appeared  to  be  exceptions  could  be  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained. From  further  pot  culture  experiments,  very  satis- 
factory explanations  were  obtained  as  indicated  in  detail 
on  page  29,  and  accordingly  in  1915  the  writer  published  a 
report  entitled,  “A  New  Theory  Regarding  the  Feeding 
Power  of  Plants. ”26  In  this  report  the  following  statement 
was  made:  “Plants  containing  a relatively  high  calcium  oxide 
content  have  a relatively  high  feeding  power  for  the  phos- 
phorus in  raw  rock  phosphate.  For  plants  containing  a 
relatively  low  calcium  oxide  content  the  converse  of  the 
above  is  true.  A calcium  oxide  content  of  less  than  1 per 
cent  may  be  considered  relatively  low.  Corn,  oats,  rye, 
wheat  and  millet  belong  in  this  class.  A calcium  oxide 
content  of  somewhat  more  than  1 per  cent  may  be  con- 
sidered relatively  high.  Peas,  clover,  alfalfa,  buckwheat 
and  most  of  the  species  of  the  cruciferae  belong  in  this  class.” 

In  1914,  Chirikov^^  published  a very  important  report,  the 
conclusions  of  which  confirm  the  views  expressed  by  the  writer 
in  1912,  regarding  the  balanced  nature  of  the  solubility  re- 
actions in  the  solution  surrounding  the  plant  roots.  With 
this  principle  as  a basis,  Chirikov  states  that  the  power  of  a 
plant  to  utilize  the  phosphorus  of  phosphorite  depends  upon 
the  ratio  of  the  plant’s  content  of  calcium  oxide  to  phos- 
phoric anhydride.  He  states  that  in  case  this  ratio  is  greater 
than  three,  marked  utilization  of  .the  phosphorite  takes 
place,  and  in  case  it  is  less  the  utilization  is  much  lower. 
As  indicated  by  Chirikov  there  are  a considerable  number 
of  exceptions  to  this  rule.  These,  he  stated,  need  further 
investigation.  As  already  indicated,  the  writer  believes  that 
the  calcium  oxide  content  of  the  plant  and  not  the  ratio  to 
phosphoric  anhydride  is  the  more  important  thing  to  con- 
sider. A full  discussion  of  this  question  is  given  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  present  report. 

Experiments  on  the  Utilization  of  Different  Phos- 
phates 

Subsequent  to  the  results  of  experiments  reported  in 
Research  Bulletin  20  of  this  Station  on  the  “Factors  Influenc- 
ing the  Availability  of  Rock  Phosphate,”  extensive  pot  cul- 
ture investigations  were  started  to  test  the  availability  to 

« Science  41  (1915)  616. 

” Russ,  Jour,  Exp,  Landw,  15  (1914)  54, 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


various  agricultural  crops  of  the  different  phosphates  that 
probably  exist  in  soils,  as  indicated  on  page  2.  These  in- 
vestigations were  carried  on  over  a period  of  four  years  and 
the  tests  were  not  only  carried  out  in  duplicate  and  triplicate 
but  a considerable  number  were  also  repeated  during  a 
second  season.  A considerable  number  of  the  plants  grown 
were  later  analyzed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  data  which  ^ 
might  throw  some  light  on  the  use  of  phosphorus  by  plants. 

Materials  used  in  greenhouse  pot  eultures. — 
Glazed  earthenware  pots  of  two  and  four  gallon  capacity 
were  used  as  containers  of  the  soil  medium.  The  soil 
medium  consisted  of  a very  pure  natural  quartz  sand  which  , 
analyzed  99.13  per  cent  of  silica,  and  contained  only  a mere 
trace  of  phosphorus  in  an  insoluble  form.  The  extremely  ' 
small  growths  obtained  on  the  pots  to  which  no  phosphate  ’ 
had  been  added,  showed  that  the  plants  were  unable  to  ^ 
secure  appreciable  amounts  of  phosphorus  from  the  quartz  i 
sand  and  that  the  sand  was  admirably  adapted  for  experi- 
ments  of  this  kind.  * i 

The  phosphates  used  consisted  of  the  following:  acid  ' 
phosphate,  rock  phosphate,  ferrous  phosphate,  ferric  phos-  ' 
phate,  tricalcium  phosphate,  aluminum  phosphate,  man- 
ganous  phosphate  and  trimagnesium  phosphate.  The  acid  ^; 
phosphate  and  rock  phosphate  consisted  of  the  actual 
materials  sold  on  the  market  as  commercial  fertilizers.  The| 
acid  phosphate  contained  6.54  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  The  < 
rock  phosphate  consisted  of  high  grade,  finely  ground  mate-.*^i 
rial-  and  contained  15.40  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  The  fer-^j 
rous  phosphate  was  purchased  as  G.P.  material.  All  the 
other  phosphates  were  carefully  prepared  in  the  laboratory 
by  precipitation  from  the  respective  G.P.  salts.  They  were* 
thoroughly  washed,  air  dried  and  powdered,  and  then  dried]; 
at  107°  C.  for  48  hours.  The  material  in  each  case  was  then^ 
ground  to  a fine  powder  and  analyzed. 

The  nutrient  solution  used  except  where  otherwise  statedi 
was  made  up  according  to  the  following  formula:  ? 


The  above  amounts  of  salts  were  dissolved  in  water  and 
diluted  to  a volume  of  25  liters.  Smaller  lots  were  made  up' 


KNOa 

NaNOs 

CaCl2-2H20 

MgS04-7H20 


1000  grams 
500  grams 
475  grams 
225  grams 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


13 


with  proportionate  amounts  of  salts  and  water.  The  iron 
was  supplied  from  a separate  solution  of  ferric  chloride. 

Arrangement  and  eare  of  pot  eultures. — Eleven  and 
four-tenths  kgm.  of  the  quartz  sand  were  used  with  the  two 
gallon  jars  and  22.8  kgm.  with  the  four  gallon  jars.  The 
weight  of  the  empty  jars  was  also  recorded  in  order  that  the 
moisture  content  later  on  might  be  checked  and  the  watering 
regulated.  Except  in  the  case  of  acid  phosphate  the  phos- 
phates were  all  added  to  the  sand  in  such  amounts  as  to 
give  0.0065  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  These  applications 
are  approximately  equivalent  to  an  application  of  1000 
pounds  of  rock  phosphate  per  acre.  The  acid  phosphate 
because  of  its  solubility  was  added  in  an  amount  which  gave 
one-half  as  much  phosphorus  as  the  others.  This  was  amply 
sufficient  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  plants. 

In  order  to  secure  thorough  mixing,  the  samples  of  phos- 
phates were  first  mixed  with  about  1 kgm.  of  the  quartz  sand 
and  this  was  then  mixed  with  the  remainder  of  the  sand 
in  a large  mixing  pan. 

Uniform  seed  of  high  germinating  power  was  selected  in 
the  case  of  the  different  plants  grown.  More  seed  than  the 
desired  number  of  plants  was  sown  in  each  case.  Soon  after 
the  plants  were  up,  the  weakest  ones  were  pulled  out  in 
order  to  have  uniformly  strong  plants  in  each  case.  For 
each  variety  the  same  number  of  plants  were  left  per  jar. 
In  the  case  of  the  two  gallon  jars,  the  corn  was  thinned  to 
three  plants  per  jar,  cereals  to  16  plants  and  alfalfa  to  20 
plants.  The  other  plants  were  thinned  out  proportionately 
depending  on  the  kind  of  plant. 

Twenty-five  cubic  centimeters  of  nutrient  solution  were 
applied  on  the  two  gallon  pots  as  soon  as  the  plants  came 
up.  Twice  this  amount  was  used  with  the  four  gallon  pots. 
Further  applications  of  nutrient  solution  were  made  depend- 
ing on  the  needs  as  indicated  by  the  growths  which  had 
been  made.  In  applying  the  nutrient  solution  each  appli- 
cation per  jar  was  always  diluted  with  about  500  cc.  of 
water  in  order  to  insure  adequate  distribution  of  the  salts. 

Distilled  water  was  used  for  watering.  This  was  applied 
frequently,  the  aim  being  to  keep  the  moisture  content 
approximately  at  13  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  sand. 
The  pots  were  supplied  with  a drainage  outlet  at  the  bottom 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


which  prevented  injury  from  any  possible  over  supply  of 
water.  The  moisture  content  was  checked  from  time  to 
time  by  weighing  the  pots. 

The  plants  were  grown  in  a greenhouse  in  which  a special 
attempt  was  made  to  regulate  the  temperature  and  ventila- 
tion. The  period  of  growth  from  planting  to  harvesting 
usually  ranged  from  60  to  75  days  with  most  of  the  different 
species  of  plants.  No  attempt  was  made  to  grow  plants  to 
complete  maturity,  since  for  some  of  the  plants,  the  pots 
used  were  too  small  to  allow  this;  and  since  with  most  of 
the  plants  it  is  believed  that  the  feeding  power  is  indicated 
quite  reliably  by  a growing  period  of  60  to  75  days.  A longer 
growing  period  is  probably  objectionable  in  many  cases, 
since  a confined  growing  space  itself  may  .become  the  prime 
limiting  factor  to  the  further  growth  of  an  already  fairly 
large  plant.  As  is  later  pointed  out,  a longer  growing  period 
than  60  to  75  days  is  required  by  some  of  the  small  seeded 
plants  that  develop  very  slowly  at  the  start. 

At  the  desired  stages  the  plants  were  cut  off  and  in  some  : 
cases  the  roots  were  also  washed  out.  The  plants  were  ' 
placed  in  paper  sacks  and  after  being  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
air  or  in  an  oven  at  a low  temperature,  they  were  weighed.  ■ 
The  weights  obtained  with  different  treatments  are  given  in 
the  following  tables.  The  results  of  several  pots  were  dis-  ; 
carded  due  to  abnormal  variations  from  other  replicates.  | 


Table  II. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Oats  Produced  with  ‘j 
Phosphates  Indicated  'j 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crop 

1 

s 

Per  cent 
of 

standard^* 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Blank 

1.9 

2.7 

1.8 

2.1 

1.9 

3.6 

2.8 

2.8 

4.9 

6.8  ■( 

Acid 

46.3 

52.1 

49.2 

22.0 

22.5 

22.3 

71.5 

100.0  V 

Raw  rock 

3.0 

3.8 

3.8 

3.5 

3.4 

2.6 

2.9 

3.0 

6.5 

9.1  1 

X 

Tricalcium... 

30.0 

28.0 

39.0 

32.3 

16.7 

18.5 

19.0 

18.1 

50.4 

70.5  J 

Aluminum.... 

42.0 

43.9 

50.0 

45.3 

27.5 

23.1 

20.2 

23.6 

68.9 

96.4  4 

Ferrous 

40.9 

40.1 

36.7 

39.2 

19.2 

20.9 

20.2 

20.1 

59.3 

82.9  f 

Ferric 

40.0 

31  .9 

39.9 

37.3 

18.1 

21  .8 

19.4 

19.8 

57.1 

79.9 

(See  Fig.  I.) 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


15 


Table  III. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Corn  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crop 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Blank 

1.6 

2.2 

2.0 

1.9 

1.1 

1.7 

2.0 

1.6 

3.5  ' 

3.8 

Acid 

64.3 

79.9 

72.1 

14.7 

20.0 

17.3 

89.4 

100.0 

Raw  rock 

2.7 

3.2 

2.8 

2.9 

2.2 

2.2 

2.0 

2.1 

5.0 

5.6 

Tricalcium... 

33.7 

31.8 

24.9 

30.1 

15.2 

11.7 

10.3 

12.4 

42.5 

47.5 

Aluminum.... 

67.8 

63.2 

65.5 

19.1 

20.2 

19.6 

85.1 

95.2 

Ferrous 

15.9 

15.8 

18.3 

16.6 

6.9 

7.8 

8.0 

7.6 

24.2 

27.1 

Ferric 

10.6 

10.6 

11.1 

10.8 

4.9 

4.6 

6.7 

5.4 

16.2 

18.1 

(See  Fig.  2.) 


Table  IV. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Rape  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crop 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Blank 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.8 

Acid 

18.6 

19.9 

23.7 

20.7 

5.5 

4.0 

4.0 

4.5 

25.2 

100.0 

Raw  rock 

4.6 

12.6 

8.2 

8.5 

1.2 

3.6 

5.2 

3.3 

11.8 

46.8 

Tricalcium... 

15.2 

15.0 

16.4 

15.5 

2.3 

5.8 

3.1 

3.7 

19.2 

76.2 

Aluminum.... 

15.8 

32.3 

16.9 

21.7 

2.7 

3.9 

1.2 

2.6 

24.3 

96.4 

Ferrous 

11.7 

12.5 

13.1 

12.4 

4.4 

2.7 

2.1 

3.1 

15.5 

61.5 

Ferric 

1.4 

5.1 

6.2 

4.2 

0.3 

2.6 

2.2 

1.7 

5.9 

23.4 

(See  Fig.  3.) 


Table  V. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Buckwheat  Produced 
WITH  Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crops 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Blank 

0.9 

0.8 

0.8 

0.8 

0.1 

0.1 

o'.i 

0.1 

0.9 

3.6 

Acid 

32.4 

17.4 

16.5 

22.1 

2.5 

1.4 

1.7 

1.9 

24.0 

,100.0 

Raw  rock 

16.4 

14.0 

13.9 

14.8 

2.0 

1.9 

2.1 

2.0 

16.8 

70.0 

Tricalcium... 

15.2 

14.3 

14.4 

14.6 

2.7 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

17.0 

70.1 

Aluminum.... 

18.8 

17.2 

18.9 

18.3 

3.6 

2.3 

2.6 

2.8 

21.1 

88.0 

P'errous 

11.6 

15.2 

14.5 

13.8 

1.2 

1.8 

1.3 

1 .4 

15.2 

63.3 

Ferric.... 

7.8 

4.5 

7.2 

6.5 

1.3 

1.3 

1.2 

1.3 

7.8 

32.5 

(See  Fig.  4.) 


Blank  Acid  Rock  Tricalcium  Aluminum  Ferrous  Ferric 

No.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 


FIG.  1.— THE  GROWTH  OF  OATS  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 

In  quartz  cultures  oats  has  weak  feeding  powers  for  rock  phosphate,  but  utilizes 
the  other  forms  of  phosphates  uniformly  well. 


Blank  Acid  Rock  Tricalcium  Aluminum  Ferrous  Ferric 

No.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 

FIG.  2.— THE  GROWTH  OF  CORN  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 

Corn  like  oats  in  quartz  cultures  has  weak  feeding  powers  for  rock  phosphate,  but 
unlike  oats  it  does  not  utilize  iron  phosphates  as  well. 


Blank  Acid  Rock  Tricalcium  Aluminum  Ferrous  Ferric 

No.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 

FIG.  3.— THE  GROWTH  OF  RAPE  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 

In  quartz  cultures  rape  has  strong  feeding  powers  for  rock  phosphate,  but  docs 
not  utilize  ferric  phosphate  as  well  as  many  other  plants. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


17 


Table  VI. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Barley  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crop 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Acid 

17, 

.50 

15, 

.40 

15. 

.60 

16, 

,17 

5, 

.40 

4 

.10 

4, 

.10 

4. 

53 

20, 

.70 

100, 

,0 

Aluminum.... 

16, 

,90 

17, 

.00 

15. 

.70 

16. 

,53 

5, 

,40 

5, 

.35 

4, 

.70 

5. 

15 

21. 

,68 

104, 

.7 

Tricalcium... 

10, 

.85 

9, 

.45 

7, 

.40 

9. 

23 

4, 

.50 

3 

.45 

3, 

o 

o 

3. 

65 

12, 

,88 

62, 

.2 

Ferric 

22, 

.00 

20, 

.10 

21. 

.30 

21 , 

,13 

7, 

.20 

5, 

.45 

6, 

.90 

6. 

52 

27, 

,65 

133. 

.5 

Ferrous 

11, 

,85 

12, 

.65 

12, 

,05 

12, 

,18 

4, 

.85 

4, 

.35 

3, 

o 

00 

4. 

33 

16. 

.51 

79, 

.7 

Magnesium.-. 

2, 

.30 

3, 

.60 

2, 

,90 

,20 

.40 

30 

3, 

.20 

15. 

.5 

Manganous.. 

20, 

.30 

21 , 

.60 

20, 

.75 

20, 

,88 

6, 

,05 

4, 

.55 

4, 

.60 

5. 

07 

25. 

,95 

125, 

.3 

Rock 

3, 

.10 

3, 

.30 

3. 

.30 

3, 

,23 

2, 

.45 

1, 

.70 

2, 

.20 

2. 

12 

5, 

,35 

25. 

.8 

Blank 

.70 

1 , 

.85 

2, 

.05 

1. 

.87 

1, 

.50 

.70 

1 

.60 

• 1. 

60 

3, 

,47 

16, 

.7 

See  Fig.  5.) 


Table  VII. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Clover  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

A 

Tops 

B 

C 

Average 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

Acid 

11.15 

10.00 

8.95 

10.03 

100.0 

Aluminum., 

8.50 

9.05 

7.80 

8.45 

84.2  . 

Tricalcium 

6.60 

6.80 

6.00 

6.47 

64.5 

Ferric 

7.90 

7.40 

5.45 

6.92 

68.9 

Ferrous 

2.15 

3.40 

1.55 

2.37 

23.6  • 

Magnesium 

1.80 

3.50 

2.75 

2.68 

26.7 

■Manganous 

.20 

.70 

.40 

.43 

4.2 

Rock 

.70 

.55 

.60 

.62 

6.1 

Blank 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.10 

1 .0 

18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


Blank  Acid  Rock  Tricalcium  Aluminum  Ferrous  Ferric 

No.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  . Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 

FIG.  4.— THE  GROWTH  OF  BUCKWHEAT  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES 
WITH  PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 

In  quartz  cultures,  buckwheat  feeds  strongly  on  rock  phosphate,  and  also  utilizes 
the  other  forms  of  phosphates  uniformly  well. 


Acid  Alint'iinim  Tricalcium  Ferric  Ferrous  Magnesium  Manganous  Rock  Blank 
r i'lu.s  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  No  Phos. 

lOG.  .)  — ITiE  GBOWd'l  OF  BARLEY  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 

ri  (■’  lliires  barley  feeds  a little  more  strongly  than  oats  on  rock  phosphate. 
Barley  grows  exce[)tionally  well  on  ferric  phosphate. 


Rock  Acid  Rock  Acid  Rock  Acid 

Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 


Oats  Rape  Buckwheat 

FIG.  6.— THE  COMPARATIVE  GROWTH  OF  SEVERAL  PLANTS  ON 
ROCK  PHOSPHATE  AND  ACID  PHOSPHATE  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES 
'Phis  shows  the  weak  feeding  powers  of  corn  and  oats  on  rock  phosphate  in  quartz 
cultures  compared  to  the  strong  feeding  powers  of  rape  and  buckwheat. 


Rock  Acid 

Phos.  Phos. 


Corn 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


19 


Table  VIII. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Serradella  Produced 
WITH  Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of  ^ 

phosphate 

A 

Tops 

B 

C 

Average 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

Acid 

7.35 

8.45 

7.50 

7.77 

100.0 

Aluminum 

7.65 

4.05 

6.65 

6.12 

86.7 

Tricalcium 

7.50 

7.55 

6.90 

7.02 

90.4 

Ferric 

9.80 

6.55 

9.70 

8.68 

111.7 

Ferrous 

2.50 

2.35 

1.70 

2.18 

28.2 

Magnesium 

3.55 

3.10 

5.00 

3.88 

49.9 

Manganous 

3.60 

4.25 

4.20 

4.02 

51  .7 

Rock 

.35 

.20 

.20 

.25 

3.2 

Blank 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.6 

Table  IX. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Millet  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

A 

Tops 

B 

C 

Average 

Per  cen i 
of 

standard 

Acid 

21.15 

18.65 

19.90 

100.0 

Aluminum 

18.05 

17.95 

15.80 

17.27 

86.7 

Tricalcium  

7.90 

7.80 

5.20 

6.93 

34  8 

Ferric 

21  .20 

22.10 

18.70 

20.67 

103.3 

Ferrous 

6.35 

6.40 

5.80 

6.18 

31  .0 

Magnesium 

1.80 

4.60 

3.20 

16.0 

Manganous 

15.50 

14.30 

14.30 

14.70 

73.8 

Rock 

.90 

.70 

.85 

.82 

4.1 

Blank 

.15 

.15 

0.15 

0.15 

0.7 

f Table  X. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Alfalfa  Produced  with 
' Phosphates  Indicated 


1 Kind  of 

1 phosphate 

i 

A 

Tops 

B 

C 

Average 

Per  cent 
of 

sland.ard 

-Acid 

6.55 

6.80 

5.60 

6.32 

100.0 

Aluminum 

5.25 

4.95 

4.70 

4.97 

78.6 

1 Tricalcium  

8.50 

5.80 

4.50 

6.27 

99.2 

Ferric 

4.30 

6.25 

7.20 

5.92 

93.6 

Ferrous 

2.20 

1.55 

1.60 

1.78 

28.1 

1 Magnesium 

.30 

.60 

.45 

7.1 

1 Manganous 

1.50 

1.30 

1.15 

1 .32 

20.8 

( Rock 

3.20 

1.00 

3.05 

2.42 

38.3 

Blank 

.10 

.10 

.10 

.10 

1.5 

20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


Ferric  Rock  Acid  Ferric  Rock  Acid 

Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos.  Phos. 


FIG.  7.— THE  UTILIZATION  OF  ROCK  PHOSPHATE  AND  FERRIC 
PHOSPHATE  BY  RAPE  AND  OATS  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES 

Striking  differences  in  plant  characteristics  of  oats  and  rape  are  indicated  in  the 
utilization  of  ferric  and  rock  phosphate. 


Table  XL — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Corn  Produced  with 
Phosphates  Indicated  (Second  set) 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Tops 

Roots 

Average 
weight 
of  total 
crop 

Per  cent 
of 

standard 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

A 

B 

C 

Av. 

Acid 

43.20 

40.00 

41.55 

41.58 

15.80 

11.90 

15.00 

14.23 

55.81 

100.0 

Aluminum.... 

22.65 

21.00 

24.35 

22.66 

9.30 

7.85 

9.10 

8.75 

31.41 

56.3 

Tricalcium... 

9.15 

12.60 

10.65 

10.80 

4.10 

4.50 

4.10 

4.23 

15.03 

26.8 

Ferric 

16.05 

14.55 

17.55 

16.05 

7.25 

5.30 

6.70 

6.42 

22.47 

40.3 

Ferrous 

7.25 

7.30 

7.35 

7.30 

'3 . 55 

3.45 

3.45 

3.48 

10.78 

19.3 

Magnesium.. 

11.10 

7.10 

9.70 

9.30 

3.15 

1.70 

2.85 

2.57 

11.87 

21.3 

Manganous . 

31.20 

30.30 

33.25 

31.58 

12.65 

10.35 

10.25 

11.08 

42.66 

76.4 

Rock 

3.25 

3.20 

4.00 

3.48 

2.00 

2.10 

2.20 

2.10 

5.58 

10.0 

Blank 

3.05 

3.15 

2.55 

2.92 

1.90 

2.15 

1.60 

1.88 

4.80 

8.6 

The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


21 


Table  XII. — Summary  of  Tables  II  to  XI  Inclusive.  Per  cent 
Normal  Growth  of  Various  Plants  on  Phosphates  Indicated 
WHEN  Growth  on  Acid  Phosphate  is  taken  as  Normal  and  Repre- 
sented by  100 


Kind  of  Phosphate 


Kind 

of 

plant 

Blank 

Acid 

Alum- 

inum 

Tri- 

cal- 

cium 

Fer- 

ric 

Fer- 

rous 

Rock 

Mag- 

nes- 

ium 

Man- 

gan- 

ous 

Oats 

6.8 

100.0 

96.4 

70.5 

79.9 

82.9 

9.1 

Buckwheat 

3.6 

100.0 

88.0 

70.1 

32.5 

63.3 

70.0 

Rape 

0.8 

. 100.0 

96.4 

76.2 

23.4 

61.5 

46.8 

Corn 

8.6 

100.0 

56.3 

26.8 

40.3 

19.3 

10.0 

21.3 

76.4 

Barley 

16.7 

100.0 

104.7 

62.2 

133.5 

79.7 

25.8 

15.5 

125.3 

Alfalfa 

1.5 

100.0 

78.6 

99.2 

93.6 

28.1 

38.3 

7.1 

20.8 

Clover 

1.0 

100.0 

84.2 

64.5 

68.9 

23.6 

6.1 

26.7 

4.2 

Millet..:. 

0.7 

100.0 

86.7 

34.8 

103.8 

31.0 

4.1 

16.0 

73.8 

Serradella 

0.6 

100.0 

78.7 

90.4 

111.7 

28.2 

3.2 

49.9 

51.7 

Discussion  of  Results  in  Tap>les  II  to  XII  Inclusive 
ON  THE  Utilization  of  Different  Phosphates 
BY  Various  Plants 

The  data  in  Tables  II  to  XIII  inclusive,  together  with 
figures  show  that  the  plants  made  very  little  growth  on  the 
[ blank  cultures  which  received  all  nutrients  except  phos- 
phates, and  also  that  the  plants  made  normal  or  good 
growths  on  the  cultures  that  received  the  nutrients  with 
the  soluble  acid  phosphate.  This  indicates  that  the  condi- 
tions were  properly  controlled  for  the  purposes  of  the  in- 
vestigation under  discussion. 

The  summary  of  Tables  II  to  XI  inclusive  as  given  in 
Table  XII,  is  a fair  and  concise  presentation  of  the  data 
in  those  tables.  In  this  summary  the  cultures  which  re- 
f ceived  the  soluble  acid  phosphate  are  taken  as  the  standards 
or  normal  cultures  and  are  represented  by  100.  The  others 
are  represented  by  a proportionate  number. 

The  use  of  the  blank  as  a standard  taken  at  100,  and 
representation  of  others  by  a proportionate  number,  as  has 
been  done  by  some  investigators,  is  objectionable  in  work 
of  this  nature,  since  it  may  lead  to  numbers  which  are  very 


22  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 

misleading;  e.g.,  if  the  data  in  Tables  IV  and  V on  the 
growth  of  rape  and  buckwheat  on  rock  phosphate  were 
represented  in  this  way,  there  would  be  obtained  for  rape  a 
figure  of  5900  and  for  buckwheat  a figure  of  1866  indicating 
that  rape  grew  much  better  on  rock  phosphate  than  buck- 
wheat, while  in  fact  the  buckwheat  made  a more  nearly 
normal  growth  under  those  conditions  than  did  the  rape. 
Many  other  cases  of  this  kind  can  be  found. 

The  use  of  a number  which  represents  the  per  cent  in- 
crease over  the  blank,  is  also  objectionable  in  work  of  this 
kind.  Chirikov^®  in  representing  some  of  Prianischnikov’s 
data  in  this  manner  obtains  the  number  2789  for  rape  and 
1477  for  buckwheat,  while  the  actual  data  of  weights  show 
that  the  buckwheat  did  as  well  on  rock  phosphate  as  on 
acid  phosphate,  and  the  rape  made  only  about  one-half  as 
much  growth  on  the  rock  phosphate  as  on  the  acid  phosphate. 

Blank  cultures  in  which  one  or  more  of  the  essential  ele- 
ments are  entirely  missing  are  not  fair  bases  or  standards 
on  which  to  base  comparative  growths  and  feeding  powers  of 
plants,  for  reasons  as  follows:  The  amount  of  the  missing 
element  carried  by  the  seeds  of  the  different  plants  in  ques- 
tion may  vary  greatly  and  hence  influence  the  results.  The 
requirements  of  the  different  plants  for  the  missing  element 
may  also  be  very  different  and  hence  greatly  influence  the 
weight  of  the  crop  on  the  blank.  Since  the  weights  of  the 
blanks  are  usually  small,  slight  differences  in  these  weights 
give  rise  to  a large  difference  in  the  comparative  figures 
obtained  by  using  the  blanks  as  a standard.  The  use  of  a 
normal  culture  instead  of  a blank,  as  a standard  is  thus 
much  more  desirable.  Possibly  figures  representing  actual 
or  comparative  amounts  of  phosphorus  taken  up  by  the 
different  plants  would  be  still  more  preferable  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  feeding  powers  of  the  plants. 

Reference  to  Table  XII  shows  that  all  the  plants  utilized 
the  phosphorus  of  aluminum  phosphate  to  a considerable 
degree.  With  the  exception  of  acid  phosphate,  the  alumi- 
num phosphate  gave  the  most  uniformly  good  results.  The 
tricalcium  phosphate  and  ferric  phosphate  were  also  util- 
ized to  a fair  degree.  In  the  utilization  of  these  two  phos- 
phates the  various  plants  exhibited  considerable  differences. 


28  Huss.  Jour.  Expt.  Landw.  15  (1914)  54. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates  * 23 

The  barley  made  an  exceptionally  vigorous  growth  on  the 
ferric  phosphate,  growin'g  even  better  than  on  the  soluble 
acid  phosphate.  This  difference  in  vigor  and  growth  was 
noticeable  a week  after  the  plants  had  come  up.  The  rape 
made  a comparatively  poor  growth  on  the  ferric  phosphate. 
The  ferrous  phosphate  in  most  cases  was  not  utilized  nearly 
as  well  as  the  ferric  phosphate,  although  some  of  the  plants 
utilized  it  to  a considerable  degree. 

The  various  plants  showed  striking  differences  in  their 
powers  to  utilize  the  phosphorus  of  rock  phosphate.  Some 
of  the  plants  appeared  to  have  little  power  of  obtaining 
phosphorus  from  this  source,  while  rape  and  buckwheat 
exhibited  considerable  power. 

None  of  the  plants  grew  well  on  the  magnesium  phos- 
phate, although  some  made  a considerable  growth.  Un- 
doubtedly, because  of  the  considerable  solubility  of  the  mag- 
nesium phosphate  due  to  hydrolysis,^^  the  toxic  effect  of 
an  unfavorable  ratio  of  soluble  magnesia  inhibited  the 
growths  rather  than  an  insufficient  supply  of  phosphorus  in 
a soluble  form.  The  abnormal  appearance  of  leaves  and 
roots  in  most  cases  seemed  to  substantiate  this. 

The  manganous  phosphate  gave  peculiar  results.  The 
barley  made  a very  heavy  growth  on  this  phosphate,  but 
the  plants  did  not  show  the  great  vigor  and  health  as  in 
‘ the  case  of  the  ferric  phosphate.  Determination  made  over 
' a period  of  two  weeks  showed  that  the  transpiration  of  water 
by  barley  growing  on  manganous  phosphate  was  greater 
than  in  the  case  of  the  ferric  phosphate,  although  the  growth 
in  the  latter  case  was  the  greatest  of  all.  The  manganese 
undoubtedly  caused  physiological  disturbances  in  the  plants. 
In  all  cases  and  especially  with  alfalfa  and  clover,  the  chloro- 
iphyll  of  the  leaves  was  affected  as  shown  by  yellow  spots. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  during  the  early  stages  of 
growth.  The  effect  of  manganese  compounds  on  the 
chlorophyll  has  been  observed  by  a number  of  investigators.^ ° 
The  roots  of  the  corn  and  barley  were  colored  brown  in  the 
manganous  phosphate  cultures,  but  otherwise  appeared 
normal. 

i The  great  differences  exhibited  by  the  various  plants  in 
their  growths  on  the  different  phosphates  indicate  that  plant 

U.  S.  Dept.  Affr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  45,  p.  56. 

I *0  Loew,  Aso  and  Sawa,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.  Bui.  45,  p.  23. 

i 
i 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


characteristics  play  an  important  role  in  this  connection. 
The  fact  that  rape  made  a better  growth  on  rock  phosphate 
than  on  ferric  phosphate,  while  in  the  case  of  oats  the  op- 
posite was  true,  (see  Fig.  7)  indicates  that  solubility  alone 
is  not  the  only  factor  involved  in  the  utilization  of  these 
phosphates  by  plants.  The  remarkably  vigorous  growth 
of  the  barley  with  ferric  phosphate  is  another  indication 
that  aside  from  solubility  or  availability,  some  phosphates 
seem  to  serve  the  needs  of  certain  plants  better  than  others. 
The  remarkable  adaptability  of  certain  soils  to  certain  crops 
may  be  partly  due  to  causes  of  this  nature. 

The  Availability  of  Ferric  and  Aluminum  Phosphates 


The  rather  high  availability  of  the  precipitated  ferric  and 
aluminum  phosphates,  as  indicated  by  the  present  investi- 
gation as  well  as  by  previous  investigators,  is  satisfactorily 
explained  as  being  due  to  a hydrolysis  reaction  which  may 
be  represented  as  follows: 

xFeP04  +3H2O ^ZI^3P04  +Fe  (OH)3.  (x— 1 ) FeP04 


A similar  reaction  may  be  assumed  for  aluminum  phos- 
phate. The  investigations  of  Lachowicz,  Cameron,^i  Bell, 
and  others,  show  that  a liter  of  pure  water  acting  on  a pre-  ^ 
cipitated  phosphate  of  either  iron  or  aluminum  may  bring  i 
into  solution  by  hydrolysis  from  several  milligrams  up  to  a \ 
tenth  of  a gram  and  even  more,  of  phosphoric  acid.  The|] 
addition  of  carbonic  acid  to  the  water  has  little  effect  on^ 
the 'solubility  of  these  phosphates  for  the  reason  that  ferric| 
and  aluminum  carbonates  are  not  formed  under  ordinary? 
conditions.  In  this  reaction  with  water  the  acidic  part  goesj  j 
into  solution  in  much  greater  proportion  than  the  basicj 
part  which  is  practically  insoluble,  and  hence  the  residue 
becomes  basic.  The  concentration  of  phosphoric  acid  in 
solution  naturally  increases  as  the  ratio  of  phosphate  used 
to  water  increases. 

As  already  stated,  Schloesing^^  ^^d  Kossowitsch  showed 
that  plants  could  obtain  their  supply  of  phosphorus  from 
solutions  containing  only  one  to  two  milligrams  of  phos- 
phoric anhydride  per  liter.  The  hydrolysis  reaction  is  thus 


For  detailed  references  see  U. 
and  Bell. 

32  Loc.  Cit. 


S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Soils,  Bui.  41  by  Cameron 


« Loc.  Cit. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


25 


ample  explanation  of  how  plants  are  able  to  secure  their 
supply  of  phosphorus  from  freshly  precipitated  phosphates 
of  iron  and  aluminum. 

The  hydrolysis  reaction  just  given  for  ferric  phosphate 
represents  the  first  step  in  the  action  of  the  water  on  a mass 
of  the  phosphate.  If  the  phosphoric  acid  made  soluble  is 
removed  by  precipitation,  moving  water  or  plant  roots,  then 
the  reaction  continues  further  resulting  in  the  original  phos- 
phate becoming  more  and  more  basic.  As  the  resulting 
phosphate  becomes  more  and  more  basic,  the  availability 
or  solubility  by  further  hydrolysis  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
remaining  therein  undoubtedly  also  becomes  less  and  less, 
and  hence  its  value  as  a source  of  phosphorus  for  plants 
also  becomes  lowered.  That  conditions  of  this  kind  actually 
arise  at  least  in  the  case  of  ferric  phosphate  is  supported 
by  the  results  of  Nagaoka,  given  in  Table  I.  These  results 
show  that  freshly  precipitated  ferric  phosphate,  when  ap- 
lied  to  a soil,  acted  as  an  excellent  source  of  phosphorus  the 
first  year,  standing  first  in  comparison  to  the  others  tried,  but 
to  succeeding  crops  it  acted  less  favorably,  standing  in  fourth 
place  the  fourth  year. 

The  favorable  results  secured  in  quartz  cultures  with 
freshly  precipitated  ferric  and  aluminum  phosphates  are 
thus  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  hydrolysis  of  the  phos- 
phate, which  if  comparatively  fresh  allows  the  formation 
of  a solution  sufficiently  concentrated  in  phosphoric  acid  to 
meet  the  needs  of  growing  plants.  Under  soil  conditions, 
in  which  case  the  hydrolysis  continues  from  year  to  year, 
there  probably  results  finally,  a phosphate  which  is  so  basic 
that  the  rate  of  solution  and  final  concentration  of  phos- 
phoric acid  are  too  low  to  meet  the  maximum  needs  of  grow- 
ing plants.  The  low  availability  of  the  phosphates  in  some 
soils  which  presumably  have  their  phosphorus  largely  in 
the  form  of  iron  and  aluminum  phosphates  is  thus  also 
explained. 

In  soils  other  factors  which  greatly  lower  the  availability 
of  the  phosphorus  in  iron  and  aluminum  phosphate  may 
also  be  at  work.  As  indicated  by  the  work  of  Peterson^^ 
these  phosphates  may  form  comparatively  insoluble  com- 
plexes with  organic  matter.  It  seems  possible  that  basic 

**  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.,  Research  Bui.  19. 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


phosphates  may  combine  with  acidic  humic  compounds  or 
possibly  even  acid  silicates  and  form  very  resistant  and 
insoluble  compounds.  The  physical  as  well  as  the  chemical 
nature  of  these  complexes  may  be  such  as  to  greatly  lower 
the  solvent  action  of  the  soil  solution  in  making  the  phos- 
phorus therein  available  to  growing  plants. 


The  Availibility  of  Tricalcium  and  Trimagnesium 

Phosphates 

The  availability  of  the  triphosphates  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium is  also  brought  about  partly  by  hydrolysis. The 
great  difference  however,  compared  to  ferric  and  aluminum 
phosphates,  is  that  in  the  case  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
phosphates  the  basic  part  on  hydrolysis  forms  a soluble 
hydroxide  which  may  be  removed  by  plants  or  the  drainage 
water.  Although  the  acidic  part  of  these  phosphates  may 
go  into  solution  a little  more  rapidly  than  the  basic  part, 
yet  the  rate  at  which  these  phosphates  change  to  basic 
phosphates  is  much  slower  than  in  the  case  of  ferric  and 
aluminum  phosphates.  The  solubility  of  the  phosphates 
of  calcium  and  magnesium  thus  does  not  decrease  nearly  as 
rapidly  since  their  composition  remains  more  uniform.  The 
great  demand  in  the  soils  of  the  humid  region  for  bases  of 
lime  and  magnesia  undoubtedly  aids  greatly  in  preventing 
the  formation  of  phosphates  of  these  bases  which  are  so 
basic  as  to  be  insufficiently  available  to  plants.  Since  car- 
bonic acid  forms  soluble  bicarbonates  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium, it  aids  greatly  in  the  solution  of  these  phosphates 
and  the  prevention  of  the  formation  of  excessively  basic 
phosphates. 

The  great  possible  advantage  of  keeping  the  phosphates 
of  the  soil  largely  in  the  form  of  calcium  phosphate  instead 
of  ferric  and  aluminum  phosphate  is  thus  perhaps  partially 
explained  in  the  discussions  given.  Soils  well  supplied  with 
limestone  are  proverbially  fertile.  Hilgard^®  states:  “In  the 
presence  of  high  lime  percentages,  relatively  low  percentages 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  may  nevertheless  prove  ade- 
quate; while  the  same,  or  even  higher  amounts  in  the  absence 
of  satisfactory  lime  percentages  prove  insufficient  for  good 

*»  For  details  and  references  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr„  Bur.  Soils,  Bui.  41. 

*•  “Soils,”  p.  365. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


27 


production.”  On  the  same  page,  Hilgard  states  further  in 
a footnote  as  follows:  “This  statement  appears  contradictory 
of  the  observations  of  Schloesing  fils,  upon  the  solubility 
of  phosphoric  acid  in  presence  of  lime  carbonate  (Ann.  Sci. 
Agron.,  tome  1,  1899)  but"  the  natural  conditions  seem  to 
justify  fully  the  above  conclusion.” 

Reference  to  this  work  of  Schloesing  shows  that  even  in 
the  presence  of  considerable  calcium  carbonate,  carbonated 
water  dissolves  over  a milligram  of  phosphoric  acid  per 
liter.  As  already  indicated  this  is  perhaps  sufficient  concen- 
tration to  meet  the  needs  of  growing  plants,  provided  the 
rate  of  solution  is  rapid  enough  to  maintain  this  concentra- 
tion in  the  local  areas  in  contact  with  the  root  hairs,  where 
the  phosphates  are  actively  taken  up  by  the  plant.  In  the 
soil  the  reaction  is  probably  greatly  aided  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  soluble  calcium  bicarbonate  is  removed  by  the 
feeding  plants,  the  soil  acids,  and  the  drainage  water. 

In  pot  cultures  with  acid  soils  needing  phosphate  fertili- 
zation the  writer  has  often  observed  a decrease  in  the  growth 
of  cereals  due  To  the  addition  of  lime  carbonate.  This  de- 
crease in  availability  is  undoubtedly  due  to  a condition 
which  is  temporary.  In  becoming  acid  a soil  goes  into  a 
condition  which  takes  years  to  develop,  and  the  addition  of 
lime  carbonate  causes  many  profound  changes,  some  of 
which  may  affect  the  availability  of  the  phosphorus.  The 
very  favorable  results  obtained  by  investigators  in  long 
continued  field  experiments  involving  the  use  of  ground 
limestone  is  strong  evidence  that  any  unfavorable  result  at 
the  start  is  due  to  temporary  conditions. 

The  Feeding  Power  of  Plants 

As  stated  on  page  11  it  was  found  that  plants  with  a high 
calcium  oxide  content  are  strong  feeders  on  rock  phosphate. 
In  first  applying  this  principle  several  cases  were  found  which 
appeared  to  be  exceptions:  viz.,  alfalfa,  clover,  tobacco  and 
serradella.^^  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  these  are  all  plants 
with  very  small  seeds.  It  was  thus  thought  possible  that 
the  apparently  weak  feeding  powers  exhibited  by  these 
plants  in  quartz  cultures  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  seeds, 

Prianischnikov,  Land.  Vers.  Sta.,  65  (1907)  27.  For  others 

see  Table  XIL 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


being  small,  did  not  furnish  sufficient  phosphorus  to  produce 
plants  of  adequate  size  in  the  usual  time,  to  indicate  their 
true  feeding  power.  As  is  evident  a plant  must  be  of  reason- 
able size  and  possess  a fair  root  system  before  it  can  be  ex- 
pected to  show  the  true  feeding  power  of  the  species  in 
question.  The  four  plants  mentioned  all  grow  slowly  at 
the  start,  even  if  sufficient  soluble  plant  food  is  at  hand. 

In  order  to  test  the  question  regarding  these  plants,  fur- 
ther experiments  were  carried  out,  the  results  of  which  are 
reported  in  Table  XIII.  These  experiments  were  conducted 


Table  XIII.— Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Crops  Produced  with 
Treatments  of  Phosphates  and  Nutrient  Solution  with  and 
WITHOUT  Soluble  Calcium  Salt  as  Indicated 


Kind 

plant 

No  phos- 
phate but 
with  sol- 
uble cal- 
cium salt 

Acid  phosphate 
with  soluble 
calcium  salt 

Rock  phosphate 
with  soluble 
calcium  salt 

Rock  phosphate 
without  soluble 
calcium  salt 

A 

B 

Av. 

A 

B 

Av. 

A 

B 

Av. 

Corn 

4.00 

16.0 

18.2 

17.10 

4.7 

4.9 

4.80 

5.7 

4.8 

5.25 

Millet 

.20 

15.6 

16.0 

15.80 

1.3 

1.3 

1.30 

1.4 

1.4 

1.40 

Turnip 

.05 

6.3 

7.0 

6.65 

3.6 

3.60 

4.4 

4.6 

4.5 

Sunflower 

.35 

12.5 

14.5 

13.50 

5.3 

5.5 

5.40 

2.0 

2.6 

2,30 

Tobacco 

.10 

11.4 

11.5 

11.45 

6.9 

6.90 

7.6 

7.2 

7.40 

Alfalfa  1 crop 

No  growth 

1 .3 

1.4 

1.35 

1.2 

1 .0 

1.10 

.5 

1.1 

0.80 

Alfalfa  2 crop 

No  growth 

8.4 

8.2 

8.30 

5.0 

6.2 

5.60 

5.2 

5.4 

5.30 

Alfalfa  3 crop 

No  growth 

3.6 

4.3 

3.95 

4.7 

5.0 

4.85 

5.0 

5.5 

5.35 

Alfalfa  4 crop 

No  growth 

6.2 

8.4 

7.30 

8.7 

8.4 

8.55 

8.7 

8.6 

8.65 

(See  Figs.  8,  9,  10  and  11) 


with  quartz  cultures  in  the  same  general  way  as  the  previous 
ones.  As  indicated  two  nutrient  solutions,  one  with,  and 
the  other  without,  soluble  calcium  salt  were  used  with  the 
rock  phosphate  treatments.  The  nutrient  solution  with 
soluble  calcium  salt  was  the  same  as  that  given  on  page  12. 
The  other  without  calcium  salt  was  made  up  as  follows, 
with  a minimum  of  magnesium  salts  in  order  to  prevent  as 
far  as  possible  the  unfavorable  effects  of  a high  magnesia 
ratio : 

KNO3— 120  Gins. 

NaNOs — 60  Gms. 

MgCl2’6H20 — 1 Gms. 

MgS04'7H20 — 5 Gms. 

Water  3 liters 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


29 


Blank 
No.  Phos. 


Rock  Phos.  Rock  Phos.  Acid 

with  soluble  calcium  salt  without  soluble  calcium  salt  Phos. 


FIG.  8.— THE  GROWTH  OF  TOBACCO  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  AND  OTHER  TREATMENTS  AS  INDICATED 

Tobacco  feeds  quite  strongly  on  rock  phosphate  in  quartz  cultures.  The  presence 
of  a soluble  calcium  salt  has  little  effect  on  this  feeding  power. 


Blank  Rock  Phos.  Rock  Phos.  .Icid 

No  Phos.  with  soluble  calcium  salt  without  soluble  calcium  salt  Phos. 


FIG.  9.— THE  GROWTH  OF  TURNIPS  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  AND  OTHER  TREATMENTS  INDICATED 

In  quartz  cultures  turnips  feed  quite  strongly  on  rock  phosphate.  The  presence 
of  a soluble  calcium  salt  has  little  effect  on  this  feeding  power. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


Blank  Rock  Phos.  Rock  Phos.  Acid 

No  Phos.  with  soluble  calcium  salt  without  soluble  calcium  salt  Phos. 

FIG.  10.— THE  GROWTH  OF  SUNFLOWERS  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES 
WITH  PHSOPHATES  AND  OTHER  TREATMENTS  INDICATED 
In  quartz  cultures,  the  sunflower  feeds  considerably  on  rock  phosphate.  The 
presence  of  a soluble  calcium  salt  is  beneficial. 


Blank  No.  Phos.  Rock  Phos.  Acid  Phos. 

FIG.  11.— THE  GROWTH  OF  ALFALFA  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
PHOSPHATES  INDICATED 
Alfalfa  feeds  very  strongly  on  rock  phosphate. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


31 


The  tobacco  plants  were  grown  on  soil  until  the  leaves 
were  about  an  inch  long  and  then  transplanted  to  the  quartz 
cultures.  Several  crops  of  alfalfa  were  grown. 

The  results  with  tobacco  and  alfalfa  show  that  these 
plants  exhibit  strong  feeding  powers  on  rock  phosphate 
after  they  have  once  developed  the  necessary  feeding  ma- 
chinery. Undoubtedly  if  tested  in  this  way  clover  and  serra- 
della  would  give  similar  results.  The  experiments  of  Kosso- 
witsch^®  with  soil,  and  those  of  MerrilP^  with  sand  cultures 
indicate  that  clover  has  a strong  feeding  power  for  rock 
phosphate.  Of  the  apparent  exceptions  noted  there  remains 
only  serradella  which  has  not  been  critically  tested,  and  it 
appears  reasonably  safe  to  accept  the  theory. 

In  Table  XIV  are  given  thirteen  species  of  plants  whose 
feeding  powers  on  rock  phosphate  have  been  tested  under 
adequately  controlled  conditions.  Results  of  some  investi- 
gators have  been  purposely  omitted  since  the  quartz  sand 
used  evidently  contained  appreciable  amounts  of  phos- 
phorus as  indicated  by  the  growths  of  the  blanks.  The 
calcium  oxide  content  of  these  plants  is  also  given  in  the  table. 

Table  XIV. — Per  cent  Normal  Growth  on  Rock  Phosphate  of 
Plants  Indicated,  and  Their  Content  of  Calcium  Oxide  * 


Kind  of 
plant 

Per  cent  Normal  Growth 

Calcium  oxide  in  dry 
material  indicated 

Source  of  data 

Data 

Per 

cent 

Material  analyzed 

Millet 

This  Pub.,  Table  IX 

4.1 

0.46 

Cut  as  hay 

Rye 

Land.  Vers.  Sta.  56,  122 

6.0 

0.60 

Before  bloom 

Wheat 

Land.  Vers.  Sta.  56,  117 

8.0 

0.50 

Plants  before  heading 

Oats 

This  Pub.,  Table  II 

9.1 

0.52 

Plants  before  heading 

Corn 

This  Pub.,  Table  XI 

10.0 

0.83 

Plants  in  bloom 

Barley 

This  Pub.,  Table  VI 

25.8 

0.90 

Plants  before  heading 

Rape 

This  Pub.,  Table  IV 

46.8 

1.78 

Plants  in  bloom 

Peas 

Land.  Vers.  Sta.  56,  123 

46.0 

1.90 

Plants  in  bloom 

Buckwheat.... 

This.  Pub.,  Table  V...! 

70.0 

3.30 

Plants  in  bloom 

Lupines 

Land.  Vers.  Sta.  56,  119 

72.5 

3.20 

Leaves 

Alfalfa 

This  Pub.,  Table  XIII  . . . 

67.4 

3.00 

Plants  in  bloom 

Tobacco 

This  Pub.,  Table  XIII 

60.2 

3.40 

Whole  plants  1"  high 

Turnip 

This  Pub.,  Table  XIII 

55.8 

3.83 

Leaves 

♦The  data  on  calcium  oxide  content  were  taken  from  Wolff’s  “Aschen  Analysen,” 
with  the  exception  of  the  figure  for  tobacco,  which  was  obtained  by  the  analysis 
of  the  crop  given  in  Table  XIII.  The  references  to  Land.  Vers.  Sta.,  refer  to  the 
work  of  Prianischnikov  and  his  assistants. 

“ Russ.  Jr.  Expt.  Landw.,  10  (1909)  839. 


Loc.  Cit. 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


In  diagram  A the  relation  of  growth  on  rock  phosphate 
to  calcium  oxide  content  is  represented  graphically.  From 
this  relation  the  writer  was  led  to  make  the  following  state- 
ment “Plants  containing  a relatively  high  calcium  oxide 
content  have  a relatively  high  feeding  power  for  the  phos- 
phorus in  raw  rock  phosphate.  For  plants  containing  a 
relatively  low  calcium  oxide  content  the  converse  of  the 


Willet  Rtje  U/heat  Oats  Corn  Barley  Rape  Peas  Buchu/heot  Lupines  O/folfa  Tobacco  Turnip 


DIAGRAM  A.— THE  RELATION  OF  CALCIUM  OXIDE  CONTENT  OF  { 
PLANTS  TO  THE  PER  CENT  NORMAL  GROWTH  OR  ’ 

FEEDING  POWER  ON  ROCK  PHOSPHATE  | 

The  diagram  shows  that  the  feeding  power  of  a plant  for  rock  phosphate  in 
quartz  cultures  is  closely  related  with  its  calcium  oxide  content.  Plants  high  in 
calcium  oxide  are  strong  feeders  on  rock  phosphate. 


above  is  true.  A calcium  oxide  content  of  somewhat  more 
than  one  per  cent  may  be  considered  relatively  high,  and  i 
less  than  one  per  cent  relatively  low.  • 

“The  explanation  of  the  above  relation  is  made  possible  ^ 
by  means  of  the  laws  of  mass  action  and  chemical  equi-  ^ 
librium.  The  reaction  making  the  phosphorus  in  raw  rock  \ 
phosphate  available  to  plants  is  largely  one  between  carbonic  *1 
acid  and  the  tricalcium  phosphate  in  the  rock  phosphate,  A 
which  may  be  represented  as  follows:  I 

Ca3  (P04)2+2H2  G03lzZ:^Ca2H2(P04)2  + CaH2(C03)2.  I 

“As  is  well  known  if  none  of  the  products  to  the  right  of  ■ 
the  reaction  are  removed  from  solution,  the  reaction  soon  ■ 


Science  41  (1915)  616. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


33 


reaches  a state  of  equilibrium.  If  the  dicalcium  phosphate 
is  continually  removed  but  the  calicum  bicarbonate  only  in 
part,  then  the  reaction  will  continue  a little  farther,  but 
also  soon  comes  to  a state  of  equilibrium  due  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  calcium  bicarbonate.  When  this  point  is 
reached,  the  further  solution  of  the  phosphate  is  prevented. 
This  is  the  condition  that  obtains  for  such  plants  as  are  low 
in  calcium  oxide  and  hence  do  not  absorb  the  calcium  bicar- 
bonate in  the  proportion  to  the  dicalcium  phosphate  as 
given  in  the  reaction.  In  such  cases,  the  plants  soon  suffer 
for  soluble  phosphates.  If  both  of  the  products  to  the  right 
of  the  reaction  are  simultaneously  and  continually  removed 
in  the  proportion  given,  then  the  reaction  continues  from 
left  to  right  and  there  results  a continuous  supply  of  soluble 
phosphates  along  with  soluble  calcium  bicarbonate.  This  is 
the  condition  that  obtains,  at  least  in  part,  with  plants  con- 
taining a high  calcium  oxide  content,  and  hence  such  plants 
are  strong  feeders  on  raw  rock  phosphate.” 

The  lime  needs  of  plants. — There  arises  in  this  connec- 
tion the  question:  Why  do  some  plants  take  up  these  pro- 
portionately large  amounts  of  calcium  oxide?  The  explana- 
tion of  this  may  possibly  be  as  follows:  Plants  with  a high 
calcium  oxide  content  usually  have  a high  protein  content. 
In  protein  synthesis,  calcium  oxide  may  be  required  for 
several  purposes,  one  of  which  may  be  the  neutralization 
of  acids  which  are  formed. 

Oxalic  acid,  a poisonous  substance,  is  usually  found  among 
the  plant  acids,  and  is  held  by  some  to  be  a by-product  of 
protein  synthesis. It  may  thus  be  argued,  that  in  order  to 
largely  neutralize  this  acid  and  perhaps  others  and  form 
insoluble  or  neutral  harmless  substances,  the  plant  requires 
calcium  carbonate.  The  insoluble  calcium  oxalate  and  other 
calcium  salts  would  thus  accumulate  in  the  plant  and 
together  with  the  calcium  that  may  possibly  enter  into 
I combination  with  proteins  or  other  plant  substances  give 
rise  to  the  high  calcium  oxide  content  which  in  turn  makes 
possible  the  strong  feeding  power  for  rock  phosphate. 

This  explanation  also  offers  an  explanation  why  most 
legumes  growing  on  acid  soils  are  benefited  by  liming. 
Except  in  unusual  cases  the  injury  resulting  from  soil  acidity 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  45  (1903)  41;  Duggar,  Plant  Physiology, 
p.  17/  ; Berthelot  and  Andr6,  Compt.  rendus,  102  (1886)  995  and  1043. 


34  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 

is  probably  not  due  to^the  direct  corrosive  action  of  the  soil 
acids  on  the  roots  of  the  legumes  or  on  the  cell  material  of 
the  legume  bacteria,  but  to  the  conditions  which  accompany 
soil  acidity.  When  not  disturbed,  the  soil  solution  comes  to 
a state  of  equilibrium  with  the  phosphates,  silicates,  car- 
bonates, organic  compounds  and  other  solid . compounds. 
In  case  a soil  is  acid,  then  solid  carbonates  in  appreciable 
amounts  are  usually  absent.  Hydrolysis  and  carbonatibn 
are  the  principal  processes  that  bring  dissolved  substances 
into  the  soil  solution. 

The  equilibrium  conditions  between  the  carbonic  acid  in 
the  soil  solution  and  the  solid  insoluble  soil  acids  and  soil 
silicates  may  be  taken  to  illustrate  the  point  under  discus- 
sion. The  insoluble  soil  acids  of  the  acid  soil,  may  be  re- 
presented by  H2X,  and  CaSiOs  may  be  taken  as  a represen- 
tative silicate.  In  this  system  of  soil  acids,  silicate  and 
carbonic  acid,  the  following  reactions  are  possible: 

(1)  CaSi03+2H2C03  H2Si03  + GaH2(C03)2 

(2)  CaSi03+H2X73=lH2Si03  + CaX 

(3)  CaH2(G03)2+H2X  2H2G03  + GaX 

\s  is  evident  from  these  reactions,  the  concentration  of 
calcium  bicarbonate  in  solution  at  equilibrium  will  depend 
upon,  besides  the  concentration  of  carbonic  acid  and  tem- 
perature, the  amount  of  surface  exposed  by  the  calcium 
silicate  and  especially  upon  the  amount  and  strength  of 
soil  acids  present  causing  soil  acidity.  If  considerable 
amounts  of  relatively  strong  soil  acids  are  present  then  the 
concentration  and  rate  of  formation  and  solution  of  cal- 
cium bicarbonate  and  delivery  to  the  plant  will  be  too 
low  to  meet  the  maximum  need  of  growing  alfalfa  and  hence 
the  growth  of  the  plant  will  be  checked. 

Insufficient  supply  of  calcium  bicarbonte  to  neutralize 
the  oxalic  acid  and  other  acids  which  are  formed  may  thus 
check  the  protein  synthesis  and  even  alTect  the  protein 
content  of  the  plant.  Here,  as  in  all  cases,  in  order  for  the 
reactions  involved  in  protein  synthesis  to  continue,  the 
products  (one  of  which  may  be  oxalic  acid)  must  be  removed 
or  precipitated  in  an  insoluble  or  harmless  form.  It  is 
possible  that  in  nitrogen  fixation  by  the  legume  bacteria, 
acids,  possibly  oxalic,  are  formed  which,  together  with  those 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


35 


formed  directly  by  the  plant’s  metabolism,  must  be  neutral- 
ized lest  they  act  injuriously  on  the  legume  bacteria.  It 
is  also  possible  that  in  order  for  the  nitrogen  fixation  in  the 
nodules  to  continue  at  a maximum  rate,  the  nitrogen  fixed 
must  be  largely  removed  by  the  plant  and  built  into  plant 
proteins,  a process  only  possible  at  maximum  rate  when  the 
supply  of  calcium  bicarbonate  is  adequate.  The  compounds 
of  nitrogen  arising  from  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  in  the 
nodules  may  possibly  be  looked  at  as  by-products  of  bacterial 
activity  which  must  be  removed  if  the  process  is  to  continue. 

The  stronger  that  the  acids  of  acid  soils  are,  that  is,  the 
greater  the  avidity,  the  lower  will  be  the  concentration  of 
calcium  bicarbonate  and  the  slower  will  be  the  rate  of 
delivery  of  this  calcium  bicarbonate  to  the  plant.  Since 
red  clover  is  lower  in  protein  and  calcium  oxide  than  alfalfa 
and  perhaps  also  grows  slower,  the  explanation  given  also 
offers  a possible  explanation  why  red  clover  can  withstand 
a higher  degree  of  acidity  than  alfalfa. 

Soils  which  are  not  acid  and  contain  considerable  solid 
calcium  carbonate  give  rise  to  a soil  solution  saturated  with 
. calcium  bicarbonate.  In  such  cases  the  rate  of  delivery 
of  calcium  bicarbonate  to  growing  plants  is  sufficient  for 
the  needs  of  all  plants. 

J If  the  function  of  the  calcium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  is 
as  just  indicated,  then  it  is  evident  that  the  addition  of 
calcium  chloride  or  sulphate  to  the  nutrient  solution  should 
have  little  effect  on  the  feeding  powers  of  plants  for  rock 
phosphate,  since  the  chloride  or  sulphate  cannot  function 
as  the  carbonate  in  making  oxalic  acid  or  other  acids 
innocuous.  Whether  or  not  calcium  chloride  or  sulphate  is 
present,  the  need  of  the  carbonate  remains.  The  data  in 
Table  XIII  bear  out  this  contention.  Most  of  the  plants 
gave  a slightly  better  growth  in  the  absence  of  calcium 
chloride  but  the  differences  are  uniformly  small.  They 
^ indicate  that  plants  use  small  amounts  of  calcium  for  other 
I purposes  than  neutralization  and  precipitation  of  acids, 
' in  which  case  other  salts  serve  as  well  as  the  carbonates. 

The  presence  of  the  calcium  ion  due  to  the  addition  of 
calcium  chloride  has  a depressing  effect  on  the  solubility  of 
tricalcium  phosphate  as  indicated  by  the  work  of  Cameron 
and  Hurst.^2  xpis  depressing  effect  would,  however,  be 

« U.  s.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Soils,  Bui.  41  (1907)  33. 


36 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


very  small  with  concentrations  of  calcium  chloride  used  in 
nutrient  solutions,  and  hence  influences  from  this  on  the 
feeding  power  for  rock  phosphate  should  be  small. 

One  of  the  plants,  the  sunflower,  grew  much  better  on  rock 
phosphate  in  the  presence  of  calcium  chloride  than  in  the 
absence.  This  may  be  due  to  a more  favorable  ratio  of 
calcium  to  magnesium  brought  about  by  the  addition  of  the 
calcium  chloride.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  sunflower 
plant  requires  considerable  amounts  of  soluble  calcium  salts 
for  other  purposes  than  neutralization,  in  which  case  the 
calcium  chloride  serves  the  purpose. 

Chirikov^^  reports  that  in  the  absence  of  soluble  calcium 
salts  barley  makes  considerable  use  of  the  phosphorite.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  total  growths  reported  by  Chirikov 
are  quite  small  in  all  cases.  In  a test  made  with  barley 
and  with  most  of  the  plants  indicated  in  Table  XIII  only  a 
slight  increase  in  growth  was  observed  when  soluble  calcium 
salts  were  omitted.  Chirikov  also  states  in  his  report  that 
it  is  not  the  calcium  oxide  and  phosphoric  acid  content  but 
the  ratio  of  calcium  oxide  to  phosphoric  anhydride,  which 
is  the  important  thing  to  consider  in  this  connection.  Since 
both  the  calcium  oxide  and  phosphoric  anhydride  content 
of  a plant  may  vary  considerably  depending  upon  the 
conditions  of  growth  it  is  evident  that  the  ratio  of  the  two 
may  vary  more  than  either  of  the  two  singly.  The  writer 
thus  believes  that  the  calcium  oxide  content  itself  is  the 
better  index  of  the  feeding  power.  The  close  relation 
indicated  in  diagram  A,  substantiates  this  contention. 

Chirikov  in  his  report  notes  a considerable  number  of 
exceptions  to  the  theory  as  presented.  It  is  important  to 
note  that  much  of  the  data  of  cultural  experiments  which 
■ he  has  used  is  probably  not-  adapted  to  this  purpose,  since 
many  of  the  blanks  show  very  considerable  growths. 

The  writer  believes  that,  in  the  case  of  plants  which  form 
a heavy  woody  stalk  like  the  lupine,  or  a fleshy  root  like 
the  turnip  which  simply  acts  as  a storehouse,  the  calcium 
oxide  content  of  the  leaves  should  be  considered  and  not 
that  of  the  whole  plant.  It  is  in  the  leaves  that  the  most 
active  life  processes  take  place  and  where  the  calcium 
carbonate  is  largely  needed  and  deposited.  Considerable 


« Loc.  Git. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


37 


amoimtsmay  be  washed  away  by  rain  as  shownby  the  work  of 
Le  Glerc  and  Breazeale.^'^  However,  plants  which  take  up 
large  amounts  undoubtedly  retain  relatively  large  amounts 
after  the  losses  have  taken  place. 

It  seems  probable  that  when  more  plants  have  been 
critically  tested,  exceptions  to  the  rule  may  be  found  in  the 
case  of  plants  which  make  peculiar  growths,  or  perhaps  use 
large  amounts  of  calcium  oxide  for  other  purposes  than 
neutralization  of  acids  in  the  plant  sap.  It  should  be 
noted  in  this  connection  that  even  young  plants  of  the 
graminae  when  grown  in  the  greenhouse  may  contain 
slightly  more  than  one  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide,  due  perhaps 
to  the  fact  that  little  is  lost  by  washing.  Under  most 
greenhouse  conditions,  all  plants  contain  relatively  more 
salts. 

Feeding  power  of  plants  under  soil  conditions. — 

Under  natural  soil  conditions  different  results  than  those 
obtained  with  quart  cultures  are  to  be  expected  in  many 
cases  in  the  utilization  of  rock  phosphate,  especially  by 
plants  which  have  weak  feeding  powers  in  quartz  cultures. 
Under  these  conditions  the  calcium  bicarbonate,  if  not  taken 
up  by  the  plant,  may  be  removed  in  the  drainage  water  or 
if  the  soil  is  acid  may  be  taken  up  by  the  soil  acids.  The 
work  of  Prianischnikov  and  Kossowitsch  with  acid  soils, 
reviewed  on  pages  4 and  5 shows  this  to  be  true.  Even 
under  these  conditions,  with  the  plants  they  tried,  those 
having  strong  feeding  powers  in  quartz  cultures  also  exhibited 
the  strongest  feeding  powers  for  rock  phosphate  in  acid 
soil  cultures. 

As  indicated  by  the  work  of  Kossowitsch  (see  page  7) 
the  relative  feeding  powers  of  plants  for  the  phosphorus 
naturally  present  in  the  soil  may  be  entirely  different  than 
that  for  rock  phosphate.  In  the  utilization  of  ferric  phos- 
phate as  indicated  in  Table  XII  this  is  further  emphasized. 
In  the  utilization  of  soil  phosphates,  especially  if  the  phos- 
phates are  largely  in  the  form  of  ferric  and  aluminum 
phosphates,  extent  and  character  of  root  systems  of  the 
plants  in  question  are  probably  very  important  factors, 
since  these  phosphates  go  into  solution  largely  by  hydrolysis, 
and  the  rate  at  which  a plant  may  utilize  the  phosphorus  is 

« U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook  (1908)  389. 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


proportional  to  the  absorbing  surface  of  the  roots.  In  the 
case  of  the  utilization  of  rock  phosphate,  hydrolysis  is  of 
minor  importance  and  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  is  of 
major  importance.  The  effectiveness  with  which  the 
carbonic  acid  acts  on  the  rock  phosphate  is  thus  of  much 
greater  importance  than  the  area  of  the  absorbing  surface. 
Rape  and  buckwheat  with  rather  limited  root  systems,  but 
with  high  calcium  oxide  contents,  are  thus  strong  feeders 
on  rock  phosphate.  Oats  which  develops  an  extensive  and 
very  fibrous  root  system  but  has  a low  calcium  oxide  content 
thus  feeds  vigorously  on  the  phosphates  naturally  present 
in  the  soil,  but  very  weakly  on  rock  phosphate  in  quartz 
cultures.  Timothy  with  its  enormous  root  system  is  an 
exceptionally  strong  feeder  for  the  phosphorus  of  soils,  even 
when  the  soils  are  quite  acid. 

The  ability  of  certain  plants  which  are  weak  feeders  on 
rock  phosphate  in  quartz  cultures,  to  feed  strongly  on  the 
phosphorus  naturally  present  in  soils,  especially  acid  soils, 
makes  possible  a rapid  early  growth  and  hence  a vigorous 
feeding  system.  These  plants  may  then  feed  more  vigor- 
ously on  the  rock  phosphate  that  is  applied  to  the  soil  than 
plants  which  are  strong  feeders  for  rock  phosphate  in  quartz 
cultures,  but,  like  some  of  the  cruciferae,  are  weak  feeders 
for  the  phosphorus  naturally  present  in  acid  soils.  With 
quartz  cultures,  a thorough  distribution  of  the  rock  phos- 
phate is  secured,  and  hence  even  the  roots  of  young  seedlings 
come  into  contact  with  sufficient  phosphates  to  largely  meet 
their  needs  providing  they  can  utilize  this  form  of  phosphate. 
Under  field  conditions  as  thorough  a mechanical  distribution 
is  usually  not  secured. 

The  results  and  discussion  given  indicate  as  follows: 
The  feeding  of  the  plant  takes  place  largely  in  local  soil  areas, 
that  is  the  portions  actually  in  contact  with  the  root  hairs. 
The  rate  of  diffusion  of  soluble  salts  which  are  not  taken  up 
by  the  plant,  away  from  the  feeding  area  is  perhaps  quite 
slow  under  most  conditions.^ ° Because  of  this  rather  limited 
area  from  which  the  plant  may  at  anyone  time  draw  its  supply 
of  phosphorus  and  potassium,  the  rate  at  which  these  elements 
go  into  solution  in  the  local  areas  is  the  more  important  consider- 

**  Because  of  the  great  solubility  and  considerable  diffusibility  of  the  nitrates,  the 
conditions  as  regards  the  nitrogen  supply  are  considerably  different  than  with 
phosphorus  and  potassium. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


39 


ation  than  the  amounts  of  these  elements  which  may  be 
drawn  off  from  the  whole  soil  mass  by  one  extraction.  The 
area  of  surface  contact  between  plant  roots  and  phosphates 
and  the  continued  rate  of  solution  at  these  points  of  contact 
are  the  determining  factors  in  the  adequacy  of  the  supply 
of  phosphorus  for  the  plant.  This  emphasizes  the  import- 
ance of  maintaining  a well  distributed  and  adequate  total 
supply  of  phosphorus  as  well  as  keeping  this  supply  in  a 
form  that  may  be  sufficiently  available  to  the  feeding  roots. 

When  soluble  phosphate  fertilizers  are  applied  they  may 
go  into  solution  in  the  soil  water,  but  are  undoubtedly  soon 
largely  precipitated  as  tricalcium,  iron  and  aluminum 
phosphates.  Undoubtedly  the  two  great  advantages  secured 
in  using  these  soluble  phosphate  fertilizers  are  thoroughness 
of  distribution  and  ease  of  hydrolysis  of  newly  precipitated 
phosphates.  This  explains  why  the  addition  of  calcium 
carbonate  does  not  have  the  marked  lowering  effect  on  the 
availability  of  the  more  soluble  phosphates,  while  with  rock 
phosphate  there  is  a decided  effect.  In  this  connection  see 
reference  to  the  work  of  Prianischnikov  on  page  4. 

The  discussion  just  given  emphasizes  the  following  in  the 
use  of  rock  phosphate: 

1.  The  mechanical  distribution  should  be  as  thorough  as 
possible  when  the  material  is  applied. 

2.  Chemical  distribution  should  be  aided  by  applying  the 
phosphate  several  months  or  better  a year  in  advance  of 
lime  if  the  latter  is  also  to  be  used,  and  by  maintaining  the 
supply  of  organic  matter  which  favors  further  chemical  and 
biological  activities  that  aid  greatly  in  chemical  distribution. 


The  Effect  of  Form  of  Nitrogen  Salt  on  the  Availa- 
bility OF  Phosphates 

In  Table  XV  are  given  the  results  with  corn  using  different 
salts  as  the  source  of  nitrogen.  The  use  of  calcium  nitrate 
in  place  of  potassium  and  sodium  nitrate  had  little  effect  on 
the  results.  The  favorable  effect  of  ammonium  nitrate  on 
the  availability  of  rock  phosphate  is,  however,  especially 
marked.  Under  this  treatment  the  corn  grew  normally. 
This  result  is  similar  to  that  of  Prianischnikov  and  Kosso- 
witsch  noted  on  pages  5 and  7. 


40 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


Table  XV. — Air-Dry  Weights  in  Grams  of  Corn  Produced  with 
Phosphates  and  Nitrates  Indicated.  Weights  are  Averages 
OF  TWO  Duplicates  and  Include  both  Tops  and  Roots 


Kind  of 
phosphate 

Solution  A 
Nitrogen  as 
pot.  and  sod. 
nitrate 

Solution  B 
Nitrogen  as 
calcium 
nitrate 

Solution  C 
Nitrogen  as 
ammonium 
nitrate 

Aluminum 

28.47 

32.91 

26.10 

Tricalcium 

23.33 

23^65 

38.38 

Ferric 

28.39 

30.73 

10.50 

Acid 

33.60 

36.45 

21.33 

Raw  rock 

7.42 

6.38 

34.37 

Blank 

5.43 

5.08 

3.53 

(See  Fig.  12) 


In  the  light  of  the  theory  presented  this  result  may  be 
satisfactorily  explained  as  follows:  Calcium  bicarbonate 

being  much  more  soluble  in  a water  solution  of  ammonium 
salts^®  than  in  water  alone,  it  follows  that  the  addition  of 
ammonium  salts  allows  the  preceding  reaction  given  on 


KNO3  NH4N02  KNO3  NH4NO3  KNO3  NH4NO3  KNO3  NH4NO3 

NaNOs  NaNOa  NaN03  NaNOs 


Rock  Phos.  Acid  Phos.  Ferric  Phos.  Aluminum  Phos. 

. 

FIG.  12.— THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORM  OF  NITROGEN  SALT  ON  THE 
UTILIZATION  OF  DIFFERENT  PHOSPHATES  BY  CORN  IN  QUARTZ  ! 
CULTURES 

When  ammonium  nitrate  is  used  in  place  of  sodium  and  potassium  nitrate  then 
corn  grows  nearly  as  well  on  rock  phosphate  as  on  acid  phosphate. 

page  32  to  continue  from  left  to  right  to  a much  greater  ^ 
extent  than  if  water  alone  is  present.  The  addition  of  a j 
salt  in  which  the  products  of  the  reaction  are  more  soluble 
has  the  same  effect  to  a certain  extent  as  is  obtained  by 
removing  the  products  of  the  reaction. 

Comey,  Diet,  of  Chem.  Solubilities,  83.  j 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


41 


The  writer  believes  it  entirely  possible  that  the  use  of 
ammonium  salts  may"  influence  the  availability  in  other 
ways  than  the  one  just  given. 

On  page  42,  Research  Bulletin  20  of  this  Station,  the 
writer  reported  results  of  pot  experiments  on  the  growth  of 
corn  with  rock  phosphate.  It  is  important  to  state  that 
these  results  were  secured  with  the  nitrogen  supplied  as 
ammonium  nitrate.  This  accounts  for  the  very  favorable 
growth  of  the  corn  on  the  rock  phosphate. 

Chemical  Analyses  of  Crops  Grown  on  Various 

Phosphates 

Some  of  the  crops  grown  on  the  various  phosphates  were 
analyzed  for  certain  constituents. 

The  total  phosphorus  content  of  plants. — In  Table 
XVI  are  given  the  percentages  of  phosphorus  found  in  the 
four  crops:  viz.,  corn,  barley,  clover  and  serradella.  In  the 
analysis  the  finely  ground  sample  was  first  moistened  with  a 
solution  containing  magnesium  nitrate  and  oxide,  and  after 
evaporation  the  material  was  burned  to  an  ash  in  an  electric 
furnace.  The  phosphorus  was  then  determined  by  the 
alkalimetric  method  after  a second  precipitation  as  the 
ammonium  phospho  molybdate. 


Table  XVI. — Percentages  of  Phosphorus  in  Plants  Grown  on  the 
Phosphates  Indicated* 


Phosphate 

used 

Corn 

Barley 

Clover 

Serradella 

A 

B 

Av. 

A 

B 

Av. 

A 

B 

Av. 

A 

B 

Av. 

Blank 

.087 

.087 

.087 

.069 

.060 

.065 

.093 

.103 

.097 

.144 

.125 

.135 

Rock 

.088 

.087 

.088 

.073 

.078 

.076 

.146 

.128 

.137 

.139 

.142 

.141 

Ferrous 

.124 

.097 

.111 

.129 

. 129 

.129 

.175 

.176 

.176 

.226 

.246 

.236 

Tricalcium 

.140 

.111 

.126 

.114 

.117 

.116 

.187 

.187 

.187 

.254 

.259 

.257 

Ferric 

.105 

.095 

.100 

.221 

.219 

.220 

.188 

.174 

.181 

.305 

.301 

.303 

Aluminum 

.139 

.136 

.138 

.262 

.229 

.246 

.230 

.200 

.215 

.362 

.352 

.357 

Acid 

.203 

.191 

.197 

.337 

.298 

.318 

.365 

.366 

.366 

.528 

.553 

.541 

Manganous 

.195 

.189 

.192 

.351 

.322 

.337 

.468 

.493 

.482 

.525 

.533 

.529 

Magnesium 

.539 

.591 

.565 

.836 

.808 

.822 

.602 

.609 

.606 

.600 

.548 

.574 

*These  analyses  were  made  on  the  crops  whose  weights  are  given  in  Tables  VI, 
VII,  VIII,  and  XL  In  each  case  the  crops  of  two  closely  agreeing  duplicate 
cultures  were  analyzed  separately  and  results  are  given  separately  as  (A)  and  (B). 


42 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


The  data  of  Table  XVI  show  wide  differences  in  the  phos- 
phorus content  of  each  crop  when  grown  on  different  phos- 
phates. None  of  the  four  plants  analyzed  made  much 
growth  on  the  rock  phosphate  in  the  time  allowed,  and  as  is 
to  be  expected  the  phosphorus  content  is  low  in  each  case. 

The  most  striking  data  in  this  table  are  the  exceptionally 
high  percentages  of  phosphorus  in  the  plants  grown  on 


DIAGRAM  B.— THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORM  OF  PHOSPHATE  USED  IN 
QUARTZ  CULTURES  ON  THE  PHOSPHORUS  CONTENT 
OF  CORN,  CLOVER.  BARLEY,  AND  SERRADELLA 

The  form  of  phosphate  has  a marked  influence  on  the  phosphorus  content  of 
the  plants.  In  every  case  plants  grown  on  magnesium  phosphate  had  the  highest 
phosphorus  content,  indicating  that  magnesium  may  function  in  the  plant  as  a 
carrier  of  phosphorus. 

magnesium  phosphate.  With  all  four  crops  the  percentages 
of  phosphorus  are  highest  in  this  case.  Diagram  B brings 
this  out  graphically  in  a striking  way.  It  may  be  argued 
that  the  reason  for  these  high  contents  of  phosphorus  with 
magnesium  phosphate  is  that  the  plants  were  stunted  by 
the  unfavorable  effects  of  the  excess  of  magnesia  and  at  the 
same  time  were  furnished  with  an  abundance  of  soluble 
phosphate.  This  has  probably  been  a factor  in  causing 
these  results,  but  that  it  has  not  been  the  only  factor  is 
indicated  by  the  following:  The  corn,  clover  and  serradella 

made  heavier  growths  on  the  magnesium  phosphate  than 
on  the  ferrous  phosphate.  The  clover  made  a much  heavier 
growth  on  the  magnesium  phosphate  than  on  the  manganous 
phosphate.  The  serradella  made  practically  as  good  growth 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


43 


on  the  magnesium  phosphate  as  on  the  manganous 
phosphate. 

A possible  explanation  of  a factor  which  has  caused  these 
high  contents  of  phosphorus  is  the  following:  Loew^^  holds 

that  the  chief  function  of  magnesium  is  the  conveyance  of 
phosphorus  in  the  form  of  magnesium  phosphate  to  the 
places  of  assimilation.  The  magnesium  phosphate  being 
readily  hydrolizable,  gives  up  its  phosphoric  acid  for  assimi- 
lation at  the  seat  of  protein  synthesis  very  readily  and  in  a 
way  largely  impossible  with  other  phosphates.  If  Loew’s 
hypothesis  is  correct,  then  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
believe  that  when  the  phosphorus  is  supplied  as  magnesium 
phosphate,  the  best  possible  conditions  for  this  assimilation 
are  supplied.  As  a result  it  is  possible  that  more  proteins 
or  organic  substances  of  high  phosphorus  content  are  formed 
than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  These  results  thus 
support  Loew’s  hypothesis  as  to  the  function  of  magnesium. 

The  contents  of  organic  and  inorganic  phosphorus 
and  also  of  nitrogen  in  corn  plants. — In  Table  XVII 


Table  XVII. — Percentage  Contents  of  Corn  Plants  in  Constitu- 
UENTS  Indicated  when  Grown  with  different  Phosphate  Treat- 
ments 


Kind  of 
phosphate 
treatment 

Total 

phos- 

phorus 

Inorganic 

phosphorus 

Or- 

ganic 

phos- 

phorus 

Nitrogen 

Crude 

pro- 

tein 

A 

B 

AV. 

A 

B 

AV. 

Acid 

0.197 

0.100 

0.090 

0.095 

0.102 

1.647 

1.607 

1.627 

10.17 

Ferric 

0.100 

0.057 

0.051 

0.054 

0.046 

2.182 

1.928 

2.060 

12.88 

Magnesium 

0.565 

0.202 

0.207 

0.205 

0.360 

2.819 

2.794 

2.807 

17.54 

Tricalcium  

2.182 

2.175 

2.179 

13.62 

I are  given  the  contents  of  organic  and  inorganic  phosphorus 
I and  of  nitrogen  in  the  corn  plants  grown  on  the  phosphates 
|!  indicated.  The  inorganic  phosphorus  was  determined  ac- 
|1  cording  to  the  method  outlined  by  Collison,^®  and  the  organic 
phosphorus  calculated  by  difference  between  total  and 
I inorganic.  The  nitrogen  was  determined  by  the  usual 
1 Kjeldahl  method.  As  indicated  by  the  data  a larger  pro- 
s portion  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  case  of  magnesium  phos- 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  45,  55. 
<*Jr.  Ind.  Eng.  Chem.  4 (1912)  606. 


44 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


phate  was  in  organic  combination  than  with  the  other 
phosphates.  The  content  of  nitrogen  and  hence  crude 
protein  was  also  the  highest  in  the  case  of  magnesium 
phosphate.  This  data  in  Table  XVII  lends  further  support 
to  the  previously  mentioned  function  of  magnesium.  The 
data,  however,  are  too  limited  for  decisive  conclusions,  and 
must  be  viewed  as  merely  suggestive. 

The  content  of  manganese  in  plants. — In  Table 
XVIII  are  given  the  contents  of  manganese  as  Mn304  of 
several  crops  when  grown  on  manganous  phosphate.  The 
determinations  were  made  as  follows:  The  powdered 

material  was  burned  to  an  ash  and  then  dissolved  in  hydro- 
chloric acid.  After  adding  a little  ferric  chloride,  the  iron, 
aluminum,  and  phosphorus  were  removed  by  means  of  the 
basic  acetate  separation.  The  manganese  was  then  precipi-  ; 
tated  with  bromine  in  a solution  which  was  at  first  alkaline  ; 
with  ammonia  and  then  slightly  acid  with  acetic  acid.  The 
precipitate  was  ignited  and  weighed  as  Mn304.  J 

The  results  show  that  the  plants  took  up  considerable  . 
amounts  of  manganese,  especially  the  clover  and  serradella.  ^ 
It  is  possible  that  in  these  two  cases  the  manganese  played^ 
partially  the  function  of  calcium  in  precipitating  oxalic  acid,  ; 
since  manganese  oxalate  is  quite  insoluble.  The  writer  < 
has  noticed  that  water  extracts  of  acid  soils  often  contain  | 
considerable  amounts  of  manganese.  When  these  soils  are  ? 
limed,  scarcely  no  manganese  is  found  in  the  water  extract.  I 


Table  XVIII. — Percentages  of  Manganese  as  MN3O4  in  Crops^ 

Indicated  when  Grown  with  Manganous  Phosphate  -r 

.J 


Crops 

Percentage  of  Mn304  5 

- A 

B 

Av. 

Corn 

0.324 

0.324 

0.324 

jj!' 

i^lover 

0.832 

0.800 

0.816 

Barley 

0.225 

0.227 

0.226 

SprrnHe.lla  

0.700 

0.750 

0.725 

_ j 

* I 

Since  manganese  may  greatly  affect  the  chlorophyll  forma-  ; 
tion  especially  of  clover  and  alfalfa,  it  seems  possible  that 
in  some  cases  one  of  the  reasons  why  soil  acidity  is  injurious  j 
to  clover  and  alfalfa  is  the  presence  of  considerable  man-  j 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


45 


ganese  in  the  soil  solution  and  hence  in  a condition  to  enter 
the  plant  in  considerable  amounts.  The  variable  deport- 
ment of  manganese  in  its  chemistry  makes  it  seem  all  the 
more  probable  that  in  certain  cases  the  effects  of  soil  acidity 
may  be  partly  due  to  the  manganese  in  solution. 

Applications  to  Practice  and  the  Need  of  Further 
Investigations 

In  the  present  report  no  attempt  is  made  to  discuss  the 
advisability  of  using  one  form  of  phosphate  in  preference  to 
other  forms  of  phosphate  fertilizers.  Undoubtedly  many 
factors  need  to  be  considered  in  selecting  the  form  of  phos- 
phate fertilizer  that  will  prove  the  most  profitable  for  any 
certain  condition.  Under  certain  soil  conditions  and  for 
certain  crops,  where  the  question  of  immediate  returns  is 
paramount,  the  use  of  the  more  soluble  forms  of  phosphate 
fertilizers  is  usually  desirable.  Under  other  soil  conditions 
and  where  the  farmer  is  in  a position  to  build  up  gradually 
the  phosphorus  content  and  crop  producing  power  of  his 
soil,  the  use  of  rock  phosphate  in  liberal  amounts  may  be  a 
desirable  practice. 

The  results  which  have  been  reported  emphasize  especially 
the  great  differences  that  exist  among  the  common  agri- 
cultural crops  in  their  power  to  feed  on  raw  rock  phosphate. 
Reasons  for  these  differences  have  been  pointed  out,  thus 
furnishing  a firm  foundation  on  which  to  base  practical 
applications.  Since  the  ability  of  a crop  to  utilize  the 
phosphorus  of  rock  phosphate  depends  largely  on  whether  or 
not  the  calcium  is  used  or  removed  at  the  same  time,  several 
desirable  practices  present  themselves  as  follows: 

Rock  phosphate  may  be  used  to  greater  advantage  on 
acid  soils  than  on  the  non-acid  ones,  especially  with  crops 
that  use  small  amounts  of  calcium.  An  acid  soil  tends  to 
make  rock  phosphate  available  even  to  crops  with  a low 
calcium  content,  since  in  this  case  the  calcium  will  be  taken 
up  by  the  soil  acids.  Where  liming  and  phosphating  are 
both  practiced,  it  is  undoubtedly  better  to  apply  the  rock 
phosphate  several  months  or  a year  in  advance  of  the  lime. 
This  will  allow  a greater  action  of  the  soil  acids  on  the 
rock  phosphate  and  hence  a better  distribution  than  would 
otherwise  be  obtained.  In  the  use  of  rock  phosphate 


46 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


provision  should  be  made  for  as  thorough  physical  and 
chemical  distribution  of  the  material  as  possible. 

The  great  feeding  power  of  certain  plants  for  rock  phos- 
phate as  has  been  pointed  out,  suggests  the  possibility  of 
utilizing  these  plants  for  making  rock  phosphate  more 
available  to  plants  that  are  weak  feeders  on  this  material. 
Rape,  white  mustard,  and  buckwheat  all  have  very  strong 
feeding  powers  and  could  probably  be  used  as  cover  and  green 
manuring  crops  in  working  out  rotations  of  this  kind.  The 
following  is  a suggested  rotation  for  Wisconsin  conditions: 

Clover, 

Wheat — seeded  to  white  mustard  after  wheat  harvest. 

Corn — seeded  to  rape  in  last  cultivation. 

Oats — seeded  to  clover. 

In  this  system  of  rotation  there  are  three  crops — clover, 
white  mustard  and  rape  which  have  strong  feeding  powers 
for  rock  phosphate.  The  white  mustard  and  rape  would  be 
plowed  under  as  green  manures  and  thus  not  only  the 
phosphorus  that  they  had  taken  up  would  become  available 
for  succeeding  crops,  but  the  added  organic  matter  in 
decaying  would  form  acids  which  would  make  still  more 
phosphate  available.  In  this  rotation,  lime  when  used 
would  best  be  applied  when  seeding  to  oats  and  clover.  J 
The  rock  phosphate  could  be  advantageously  applied  to  the  i 
wheat  or  corn  crop. 

Many  other  systems  of  rotation  can  be  worked  out  in  . i 
making  use  of  plants  with  strong  feeding  powers.  It  might  .. 
be  of  advantage,  especially  in  short  rotations,  to  apply  the 
lime  and  rock  phosphate  at  alternate  rotations.  Thus  in  a- 
Inree-year  rotation,  lime  would  be  applied  every  six  years ^ 
and  rock  phosphate  also  every  six  years. 

Where  phosphorus  is  needed  in  the  growing  of  alfalfa,  iiy 
seems  that  the  application  and  thorough  mixing  with  the  '^l 
soil  of  a liberal  amount  of  rock  phosphate  should  prove 
especially  desirable  and  profitable. 

Before  advocating  systems  of  cropping  and  fertilization 
of  the  kind  mentioned,  further  careful  field  investigation  is 
necessaiy.  The  condition  of  the  phosphorus  in  soils,f 
especially  in  regard  to  availability,  as  effected  by  soil 
acidity  and  liming,  and  the  methods  which  may  be  used  in  H 
attacking  these  problems,  are  all  subjects  needing  further;  j 
investigation. 


The  Utilization  of  Phosphates 


47 


Summary 

In  this  bulletin  the  data  of  many  investigators  are  reviewed 
and  there  are  reported  the  results  of  investigations  extending 
over  a period  of  about  five  years,  on  the,  utilization  of  phos- 
phates by  agricultural  crops  and  the  feeding  power  of  plants. 

Quartz  cultures  involving  twelve  species  of  plants  and 
eight  different  kinds  of  phosphates  were  used  in  these 
investigations.  The  different  species  of  plants  showed 
some  marked  individual  preferences  for  the  different  phos- 
phates. Solubility  of  the  phosphates  was  not  the  only  factor 
that  determined  the  growth  of  a plant  on  these  phosphates. 

Precipitated  ferric  and  aluminum  phosphates  produced 
with  a few  exceptions  good  growths  and  in  a few  cases  even 
better  growths  than  the  acid  phosphate.  The  availability 
of  these  phosphates  is  undoubtedly  due  to  ease  of  hydrolysis 
of  the  neutral  or  nearly  neutral  material,  in  which  case  the 
phosphoric  acid  goes  into  solution  and  there  is  left  a basic 
phosphate.  On  continued  hydrolysis  these  phosphates,  as 
indicated  by  several  investigators,  undoubtedly  become 
more  and  more  basic  and  the  phosphoric  acid  therein  less 
and  less  soluble  or  available.  It  seems  that  these  basic 
phosphates  probably  form  complexes  with  acidic  organic 
substances,  and  possibly  even  with  acid  silicates.  In  these 
combinations  the  phosphoric  acid  is  probably  of  low  avail- 
ability. The  advisability  of  using  lime  to  aid  in  breaking  up 
complexes  of  iron  and  aluminum  phosphate  with  organic 
matter  or  acidic  substances,  and  in  helping  to  keep  the 
phosphates  largely  in  the  form  of  calcium  phosphate  which 
has  a more  uniform  continued  availability  is  thus  still 
substantiated. 

The  phosphorus  of  precipitated  tricalcium  phosphate  was 
much  more  available  than  that  of  rock  phosphate,  although 
the  form  of  phosphate  is  perhaps  nearly  the  same  in  the  two. 
Greater  ease  of  hydrolysis  of  the  freshly  precipitated  form, 
due  partly  to  the  physical  condition,  undoubtedly  accounts 
for  this. 

The  feeding  powers  of  twelve  common  agricultural  plants 
for  raw  rock  phosphate  has  been  determined  under  carefully 
controlled  conditions.  Great  differences  in  the  feeding 
powers  were  observed.  By  means  of  a further  application 


48 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


of  the  laws  of  chemical  equilibrium  in  their  relation  to  the 
solution  of  plant  food  material  and  feeding  of  plants  as 
briefly  indicated  by  the  writer  in  Wisconsin  Research 
Bulletin  20,  1912,  a theory  why  plants  vary  greatly  in  their 
feeding  power  for  rock  phosphate,  has  been  worked  out  as 
follows:  Plants  containing  a relativelg  high  calcium  oxide 

content  have  a relativelg  high  feeding  power  for  the  phosphorus 
in  raw  rock  phosphate.  For  plants  containing  a relativelg  low 
calcium  oxide  content  the  converse  of  the  above  is  true.  The 
explanation  of  this  relation  is  made  possible  bg  means  of  the 
laws  of  mass  action  and  chemical  equilibrium. 

This  explanation  substantiates  the  results  of  other  investi- 
gators, which  indicate  that  carbonic  acid  is  the  only  free 
acid  given  off  in  appreciable  amounts  by  plant  roots.  The 
failure  of  investigators  to  show  that  there  is  a direct  relation 
between  the  relative  feeding  powers  of  plants  and  the 
amounts  of  carbonic  acid  given  off  by  the  respective  plant 
roots  is  thus  also  explained,  since  it  is  more  largely  the 
efficiency  with  which  the  carbonic  acid  acts  as  determined 
by  the  equilibrium  conditions  of  the  soil  solution  iji  contact 
with  the  roots,  than  the  total  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
given  off,  that  determines  the  feeding  power. 

Since  the  roots  of  plants  at  any  one  time  come  in  contact 
with  only  a small  portion  of  the  total  internal  surface  of  the 
soil,  and  the  feeding  of  the  plant  roots  especially  for  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  probably  takes  place  largely  in  local 
soil  areas,  the  rate  at  which  these  elements  go  into  solution 
in  the  local  areas  in  contact  with  the  roots  is  a more  important 
consideration  than  the  amount  of  these  elements  that  mag  be 
drawn  off  from  the  whole  soil  mass  in  one  extraction. 

The  increased  availability  of  rock  phosphate  when  used 
in  connection  with  ammonium  salts  is  also  explained  by  this 
theory  as  due  at  least  partly  to  the  increased  solubility  of 
the  calcium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  in  solutions  ofi 
ammonium  salts.  The  greater  availability  of  rock  phos-j 
phate  in  acid  soils  than  in  non-acid  soils  especially  to  plants] 
with  weak  feeding  powers  is  also  explained,  since  acid  soils] 
will  remove  the  calcium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  fromj 
solution  and  thus  make  it  possible  for  the  solubility  reactionj 
to  continue.  » 

The  great  feeding  power  of  some  plants,  which  are  weak 
feeders  on  rock  phosphate  in  quartz  cultures,  for  the  phos-^ 


The  Utilization' of  Phosphates 


49' 


phates  naturally  present  in  the  soil  is  explained  as  due  to 
their  extensive  root  systems  which  make  possible  a suffi- 
ciently rapid  absorption  of  the  phosphates  that  go  into  solu- 
tion largely  by  hydrolysis.  The  greater  apparent  availa- 
bility of  rock  phosphate  to  some  plants  in  quartz  cultures 
than  under  field  conditions  is  also  explained  in  the  discussion. 

In  a general  way  the  theory  .advanced  regarding  the 
feeding  power  of  plants  for  difficultly  soluble  substances 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  Each  point  of  contact  or 

near  contact  between  absorbing  surface  of  root  hairs  and 
difficultly  soluble  substances  may  be  regarded  as  a chemical 
system  which  strives  to  attain  a point  of  equilibrium  be- 
tween liquid  and  solid  phases.  In  this  system  carbonic 
acid  and  water  are  the  main  agents  causing  solution.  In 
some  cases  the  action  is  largely  one  of  hydrolysis  and  there 
is  formed  a soluble  product  and  an  insoluble  product;  e.  g., 
action  of  water  on  ferric  phosphate;  in  other  cases  the  action 
may  be  both  by  hydrolysis  and  carbonation  and  the  products 
formed  are  both  soluble;  e.  g.,  action  of  carbonated  water  on 
calcium  phosphate;  or  only  one  of  the  products  may  again 
be  soluble;  e.  g.,  action  of  carbonated  water  on  feldspar. 
In  order  that  the  solubility  reaction  may  continue  in  any 
of  the  cases,  it  is  necessary  that  proportionate  amounts  of 
all  the  soluble  products  be  continually  removed.  Thus,  if  a 
plant  is  to  feed  strongly  on  rock  phosphate,  both  the  calcium 
acid  phosphate  and  calcium  bicarbonate  must  be  used  by  the 
plant  in  somewhat  proportionate  amounts.  In  this  case  the 
calcium  oxide  content  of  the  plant  becomes  the  determining 
factor  in  the  feeding  power.  Also,  if  a plant  is  to  feed 
strongly  on  ferric  phosphate  or  orthoclase  feldspar,  then 
since  in  these  cases  only  one,  product  is  soluble,  extent  of 
root  absorbing  surface  becomes  the  determining  factor  in  the 
feeding  power  of  the  plant.  The  timothy  plant  is  a splendid 
example  of  this  type.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  other 
subordinate  factors  also  enter,  especially  under  field  condi- 
tions where  the  drainage  water,  and  under  acid  conditions, 
where  the  soil  acids,  may  remove  one  or  more  of  the  soluble 
products.  The  movements  of  the  soil  water  and  the  action 
of  soil  bacteria  and  other  soil  life  are  all  factors  which  may 
disturb  conditions  of  equilibrium  at  the  local  feeding  areas 
and  hence  influence  the  power  of  a plant  to  feed  on  diffi- 
cultly soluble  substances. 


50 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  41 


The  exceptionally  high  phosphorus  content  of  the  plants 
grown  on  magnesium  phosphate  supports  Loew’s  hypothesis 
that  magnesium  functions  as  a conveyor  of  the  phosphorus 
in  the  plant. 

The  high  calcium  oxide  content  found  in  certain  plants 
seems  to  be  connected  with  a high  protein  content.  In 
protein  synthesis  calcium  is  probably  used  for  at  least  two 
purposes:  viz.,  In  one  case  it  enters  into  the  protein  molecule, 
and  in  the  other  as  calcium  carbonate  or  bicarbonate  it 
neutralizes  the  poisonous  oxalic  acid  or  other  acids  which 
are  probably  by-products  of  protein  synthesis.  This  seems 
to  be  at  least  a partial  explanation  why  legumes  which  are 
high  in  protein  grow  best  on  a soil  well  supplied  with  cal- 
cium carbonate. 

Plants  grown  on  manganous  phosphate  contain  consider- 
able amounts  of  manganese.  Manganese  affects  the  chloro- 
phyll formation  of  certain  plants  and  especially  of  clover  and 
alfalfa.  Since  the  soil  solution  of  acid  soils  often  contains 
considerable  amounts  of  manganese,  this  may  explain  one 
way  in  which  soil  acidity  acts  injuriously  on  these  plants. 

In  the  light  of  the  present  report,  the  application  of  rock 
phosphate  to  acid  soils,  especially  several  months  or  a year 
in  advance  of  the  application  of  lime,  seems  to  be  a desirable 
practice.  It  seems  that  rock  phosphate  may  possibly  be 
used  very  advantageously  in  the  growipg  of  alfalfa.  It  also 
seems  possible  that  some  of  the  plants  with  strong  feeding 
powers  for  rock  phosphate  may  be  used  advantageously  as 
cover  crops  and  green  manuring  crops  and  thus  provide  for  a 
better  utilization  of  the  rock  phosphate  than  is  otherwise 
possible.  This  as  well  as  the  availability  of  the  soil  phos- 
phorus as  affected  by  different  soil  conditions  are  matters 
needing  further  investigation. 


>0. 7 

Research  Bulletin  42 


August,  1917 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related 

Plants 


R.  D.  RANDS 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction  1 

History  and  occurrence  of  the  disease 1 

Economic  importance  3 

Symptoms  4 

Studies  on  teh  host  range  of  Alternaria  solani 6 

Greenhouse  inoculations 6 

Field  inoculations 8 

Pathological  anatomy  16 

The  causal  organism 17 

Taxonomy  17 

Morphology  19 

Physiology  20 

Temperature  relations 21 

Life  history  of  Alternaria  solani  in  relation  to  early  blight 23 

Seasonal  development  of  the  disease 23 

Spore  production 23 

Effect  of  various  factors;  spot  histories. 26 

Viability  and  longevity  of  mycelium  and  conidia 27 

Dissemination  of  conidia 30 

Method  of  infection 30 

Period  of  incubation 31 

Time  of  natural  infection  31 

Source  of  natural  Infection 31 

Overwintering  of  the  fungus 31 

The  relation  of  climate  and  soil  to  the  disease 33 

Control  Measures 38 

Resistant  varieties 38 

Spraying  39 

On  early  potatoes 40 

On  late  potatoes 41 

Recommendations  for  spraying 42 

Sanitation  44 

Summary  44 

Literature  cited 47 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related 

Plants* 

R.  D.  Rands 

The  potato  is  commonly  subject  to  two  blights,  late  and  early. 
Ill  Europe  the  former  is  the  better  known  of  the  two;  while 
throughout  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  latter  is  more  generally 
distributed.  It  was  shown  many  years  ago  that  early  blight  is 
caused  by  a fungus  now  known  as  AUeniaria  soJani  (E.  & M.) 
J.  & G. ; but  many  points  in  connection  with  the  life  history  of 
this  organism,  its  host  range,  climatic  relations,  means  of  over- 
wintering, and  control  measures  required  investigation.  In 
this  bulletin  are  presented  the  more  important  results  of  an  in- 
tensive study  of  the  disease  as  it  has  occurred  in  central  Wis- 
consin during  the  past  three  years. 

History  and  (3ccurrence  of  the  Disease 

The  early  blight  of  potato  was  not  early  recognized  as  a dis- 
tinct disease,  due  perhaps  to  the  general  confusion  of  all  the  leaf 
troubles  under  the  term  ''blight  {Phytophilwra  infestans).  As 
soon  as  attention  was  concentrated  upon  these  in  America, 
blighting  of  the  foliage  not  accompanied  by  tuber  rot  Avas  noted. 
Subsequent  study  led  to  the  differentiation  of  tip-burn,  arsenical 
poisoning,  and  early  blight. 

The  causal  organism  of  the  latter  Avas  first  described  as  a 
Macrosporium  by  Plllis  and  Martin  (1882)  from  the  dying 
leaATS  of  potato  near  NcaaMcW,  Ncav  Jersey.  The  first  reference 
to  the  fungus  as  a parasite  and  its  association  AAuth  potato  leaf 
blight  is  that  by  GalloAvay  (1891).  He  later  (1893)  states  that 
it  AA’as  first  collected  in  Missouri  in  1885  and  in  1890  "complaints 
of  its  ravages’’  came  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 

*The  writer  is  indebted  to  Prof.  T^.  R.  .Tones  for  many  helpful  suggestions 
during  the  progi-ess  of  the  study,  and  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript. 


2 


Research  Bulletin  42 


culture  from  widely  separated  regions  in  the  United  States.  In 
this  paper  he  gives  an  accurate  and  detailed  description  of  the 
disease.  The  fungus  was  grown  in  culture,  but  from  the  brief 
description  it  is  uncertain  whether  these  were  pure.  However, 
inoculations  produced  the  characteristic  spots  in  from  8 to  10 
days.  Following  this  the  trouble  was  reported  by  workers  in 
most  of  the  middle  west  and  eastern  states.  For  some  time  there 
was  much  disagreement  concerning  the  true  cause  of  the  disease. 
Some  believed  the  Macrosporium  only  a secondary  invader  and 
the  disease  primarily  of  nonparasitie  origin,  while  others  con- 
sidered the  fungus  a parasite  but  not  the  cause  of  all  the 
trouble. 

Jones  (1893)  writing  of  the  disease  reports  injuries  quite  sim- 
ilar produced  by  paris  green.  Here  for  the  first  time,  appears  a 
drawing  of  a diseased  leaf,  affected  unquestionably  with  the  dis- 
ease as  we  know  it  to-day.  At  this  time  he  suggested  the  names 
early  blight  and  late  blight  to  separate  the  two  diseases.  It  was 
not  until  some  time  later  when  Jones  (1895,  1896)  published  the 
results  of  further  studies  that  the  relation  of  the  Macrosporium 
to  the  various  troubles  entirely  cleared  up.  His  field  and  lab- 
oratory studies  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  the  fungus  was 
a true  parasite  and  the  primary  cause  of  early  blight.  Here 
also  he  clearly  differentiates  the  three  other  forms  of  disorder 
which  had  been  confused  up  to  that  time  under  the  name 
' ‘ blight,  ’ ’ namely,  late  blight,  arsenical  poisoning,  and  tip-burn. 
Even  after  this  the  troubles  were  not  ahvays  separated.^  Since 
the  work  of  Jones,  very  little  has  been  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  early  blight  disease.  However,  during  the  past  two  de- 
cades much  valuable  data  have  accumulated  bearing  upon  the 
control  of  the  trouble  by  spraying.  During  these  twenty  years, 
early  blight  has  been  reported  from  practically  every  state  in 
the  union.  Outside  the  United  States  it  has  been  recorded  from 
Canada,  Mexico,  South  America,  Europe,  Africa,  Australia, 
India,  New  Zealand,  New  South  AVales,  and  Java.  Thus  it 
probably  occurs  wherever  the  potato  is  an  important  crop.  As 


*As  illustrating-  the  confusion  at  this  time,  reference  may  be  made  to  the 
Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  113,  1896,  by  E G.  Lode- 
man.  Accompanying  a description  (p.  254-261)  of  what  is  called  "earl> 
blight”  is  a colored  plate  of  a potato  leaf  affected,  not  with  early  blight,  but 
with  a clear  case  of  tip  burn.  In  the  text  book,  “The  Spraying  of  Plants.” 
by  the  same  author,  the  illustration  on  page  346,  labeled  “early  blight” 
represents  a typical  form  of  arsenical  poisoning. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


to  whether  the  parasite  is  native  to  the  potato  and  has  spread 
with  it  from  its  original  home  in  South  America  to  the  various 
countries  into  which  the  potato  has  been  introduced  is  largely 
a matter  of  speculation.  However,  Jones  (1903)  reports  finding 
it  on  specimens  of  wild  potato  from  Mexico. 

Economic  Importance 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  determine  the  actual  loss  caused 
by  early  blight,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  situation  is  usually 
complicated  by  the  presence  of  tip-burn,  arsenical  poisoning, 
fiea  bettle  injury,  or  late  blight.  Results  from  spraying  experi- 
ments furnish  no  accurate  basis  for  estimating  the  loss  since 
bordeaux  mixture  reduces  at  the  same  time  the  infiuence  of  all 
the  other  troubles  on  the  vines,  and  may  in  itself  furnish  a stim- 
ulus to  greater  vigor.  All’  reports  show  that  the  disease  is  of 
greater  consequence  in  the  United  States  than  elsewhere,  with 
the  possible  exceptions  of  Australia,  Rhodesia  and  New  Zealand. 
Jones  (1903)  states  that  in  certain  seasons  Alternaria  solani 
causes  more  loss  in  many  parts  of  New  England  than  does  the 
mildew.  Several  cases  are  on  record  of  unusual  attacks,  but 
more  important,  however,  is  the  smaller  but  yearly  toll  of  the 
disease.  Coons  (1914)  averages  the  annual  loss  in  Michigan  as 
about  25  per  cent.  In  Wisconsin  Jones  (1912)  states  that  it 
may  reduce  the  yield  10  to  25  per  cent.  The  writer  considers 
these  figures  a conservative  estimate. 

In  the  southern  states,  early  blight  has  been  reported  to  at- 
tack seriously  leaves,  stems,  and  fruit  of  the  tomato.  Edgerton 
and  Moreland  (1913) , in  Louisiania,  state  that  it  is  a close  second 
to  ‘Svilt”  in  destructiveness  and  in  many  regions  the  '‘all  im- 
portant disease.”  In  one  tomato  district  they  estimated  a loss 
of  50  per  cent."^  Though  the  disease  transfers  readily  to  the 
tomato  and  may  be  found  almost  every  year  in  the  northern 
states,  yet  it  appears  to  do  little  damage.  The  writer  has,  how- 
ever, found  it  in  both  the  Chicago  and  Madison  local  markets 
as  the  cause  of  a severe  rotting  of  tomato  fruits  from  the  south. 
The  evidence  here  indicated  that  the  disease  had  developed  dur- 
ing transit.  In  the  summer  of  1916  it  was  isolated  along  with 
Gleosponum  phomoides  Sacc.  from  decaying  tomato  fruits  at 


* Isolations  of  the  fungus  from  fresh  material  received  from  Dr.  Edg-erton 
in  July  1916  confirmed  his  diagnosis  of  the  trouble. 


Research  Bulletin  42 


4 


Waupaca,  Wis.,  but  which  fungus  was  priinarih'  responsible  for 
the  trouble  was  not  determined.  Inoculation  studies  reported 
later  in  this  bulletin  show  that  A.  solarii  is  capable  of  producing 
a spotting  no  wise  different  in  appearance  from  that  on  natur- 
ally infected  fruit. 

The  disease  has  been  found  the  past  two  seasons  on  eggplants 
in  Wisconsin ; it  seems,  however,  to  be  of  little  consequence  es- 
pecially as  compared  with  the  leaf  spot  caused  by  Phomopsis 
vexans  (Sacc.  & Syd.)  Harter.^  In  June,  1916.  it  was  foum^ 
to  be  causing  a serious  blight  in  seed  beds  of  this  host  at  Eau 
Claire,  Wisconsin.  It  was  learned  that  the  hot  beds  had  re- 
mained for  a number  of  years  in  the  same  place  and  that  it  was 
the  practice  to  sprinkle  them  frequently  with  a hose.  These  fac- 
tors operating  on  the  crowded,  more  or  less  etiolated  seedlings 
may  account  for  the  rapid  spread  and  severity  of  the  trouble. 


1 


FIG.  1.— EAKl.V  m.K.iri'  OF  POTATO 

It'iif  is  soon  from  tho  ^m- 

laiK  .lUMit  t)f  till*  spots.  (Pliotograpli  by 
1,.  H.  .lones.) 


Symptoms 

The  appearance  of  the  spots  t 
on  the  leaves  of  ea^h  of  the 
three  common  hosts  is  vei'.y 
similar.  They  are  dark  lirowiiC 
or  black  and  shoAv  usnallv  a ’ 
series  of  concentri-*  ridges  | 
whicli  produce  a '’target  I 
board' ’ effect.  (Fig.  3)  There' 
is  often  a narrow  marginal  | 
faded  zone  which  spreads  out- 
ward as  ,the  spot  enlarges. 
The  spots  are  usually  oval  m 
shape  but  under  unfavorable 
conditions,  especially  on  a 
vigoi*ous  leaf,  may  remain 
small  and  angular  conforming 
to  the  spaces  between  several 
small  veins.  (Fig.  1.)  The 
spots  usually  enlarge  after 
the  death  of  the  leaf.  On  the  j 
tomato  the  disease  may  be  | 


* Alter)i(tvia  aolani  was  first  recorded  on  egg-fdant  by  Chester  (1893)  in 
Delaware.  Later  it  was  listed  l)y  Clinton  tl904)  in  Connecticut. 


Early  BLKmT  of  Potato  and  Rp:lated  Plants 


easily  mistaken  for  the  leaf  spot  {Septoria  lycojyersici)  which 
has  been  much  more  common  on  Wisconsin  tomatoes  during  the 
past  two  seasons.  Without  the  aid  of  a hand  lens  the  spots  on 
the  egg-plant  are  almost  indistinguishable  from  those  caused  by 
Pltomopsis  vexans.  Early  blight  on  the  potato  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  arsenical  poisoning  by  the  darker  color  of  its 
spots.  With  tip-burn  the  leaflet  usually  shows  apical  or  mar- 
ginal burning  and  the  concentric  rings  are  absent.  There  is  still 
less  resemblance  to  the  late  blight  because  of  the  whitish  fructi- 
fication of  the  venti*al  surface  of  leaves  affected  with  the  latter 
trouble.  ' 

Potato  plants  may  be  at- 
tacked by  early  blight  at  al- 
most any  stage  of  their  ex- 
istence, but.  under  ordinary 
conditions,  the  disease  is  not 
able  to  gain  a foothold  until 
the  vines  have  passed  their 
period  of  greatest  vigor  and 
are  directing  their  energy  to 
tuber  formation. 

Before  this  time,  close  scru- 
tiny will  generally  reveal  an 
occasional  spot  on  the  lower, 
older,  and  more  shaded  leaves 
of  the  plant.  Such  leaves  have 
frequently  been  covered  and 
uncovered  (with  soil)  a time 
or  two  during  the  process  of 
cultivation  and  are  conse- 
(}uently  yellowed  and  weak- 
ened. Under  favorable  con- 
ditions the  spots  increase  rap- 
idly in  number,  and  the  leaves 
beginning  with  the  lower  ones 
gradually  die  until  only  a few 
green,  spotted  leaves  remain  at  the  top  of  the  plant.  (Fig.  2.) 
In  severe  cases  spots  develop  on  the  petioles  and  upper  stems  of 
the  plant. 


FIG.  2.— A SIXGLK  HILL  OF  POTATO 
DYING  FROM  EARLY  BLIGHT 

Early  Ohio  planted  April  28,  photo- 
graphed August  12,  191.5.  Note  the  pro- 
gressive curling  and  drying  of  the  leaves 
from  the  ground  upward. 


6 


Research  Bulletin  42 


Studies  on  the  Host  Range  of  Alternaria  Solani 

The  primary  object  of  these  studies  was  to  determine  whether 
the  leaf  spots  of  potato,  tomato,  egg-plant,  and  Jimson  weed 
(Datura  stramonium),  which  have  been  ascribed  to  this  fungus, 
were  produced  by  one  and  the  same  species  of  Alternaria. 
Jones  (1896)  proved  beyond  doubt  the  parasitic  relationship - 
of  Alternaria  solani  to  the  early  blight  of  potato,  but  its  con- 
nection with  the  other  plants  has  never  been  conclusively  shown 
by  inoculation  tests.  The  failure  of  inoculations  on  Datura  and 
the  comparative  studies  of  Alternaria  solani  and  the  Datura . 
fungus  show  that  the  latter  is  a distinct  species,  bearing  no  sim- 
ilarity to  A.  solani  in  its  host  relationship.  The  results  are  pub- 
lished elsewhere  (Phytopathology  7:  327-337,  1917)*  The  sec- 
ondary object  was  to  determine  within  what  limits  the  parasitism  . 
of  Alterna^'ia  solani  is  confined. 

During  the  summer  of  1915,  pure  cultures  from  single  spores  ; 
were  obtained  for  inoculation  purposes  from  potato,  tomato,  and  : 
egg-plant  growing  at  Waupaca,  Wis.  They  were  later  grown 
comparatively  on  fifteen  kinds  of  agar  media  and  in  appearance  t 
were  practically  identical.  Abundant  spores  for  inoculations  ■ 
were  obtained  from  each  bv  a method  later  referred  to. 

Greenhouse  Inoculations  ’ 

* 

The  following  inoculation  methods  were  used  with  more  or  | 
less  success  in  greenhouse  experiments  made  from  February  to  ^ 
May,  1916;  temperature  19  to  23°  C.  ^ 

(1)  Drop  of  heavy  spore  suspension  placed  on  flat  portion  of  ^ 
leaf  inclosed  by  round  cover  slip.  Plant  placed  in  glass  moist 
chamber  for  48  to  72  hours. 

(2)  Spores  or  mycelium  introduced  into  needle  punctures. 

Plant  placed  under  bell  jar  and  atomized  frequently  with  water 
for  48  hours.  ' j 

(3)  Leaves  atomized  with  spore  suspension  and  for  48  hours  \ 

kept  moist  by  fine  spray  from  nozzle.  [ 

* This  Datura  leaf  spot  which  has  been  widely  attributed  to  Alternaria  f 
solani  is  shown  to  be  due  to  the  fungus  named  Cercospora  ci-assa  by  I, 
Saccardo  in  1877.  Examination  of  type  specimens  collected  by  Saccardo 
and  of  exsiccati  from  various  parts  of  the  United  States  show'  that  the 
fungus  w^as  named  from  immature  material  and  is  really-  an  Alternaria.  The 
new'  combination.  Alternaria  crassa,  with  technical  discription  is  given 
In  the  article  in  Pytopathology  referred  to  above. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


Table  1.— G^eieej^ii^use  Inooulateoxs,  Madison.  1916 


Da.te 

Source  of, 
inoculum 

. ^ I 

Plant  inoculated; 
condition,  etc. 

1 

VIethod  ot 
inocula- 
tion 

Results 

:b.  2.5 

Potato  strain. 

A.  solani;myce] 
on  bits  of  agar 

Potato-2  plants 
8-lOin.  high;  vig. 
10  leaflets  inoc.. 

No.  2 

March  3,  809^  infection;  spots  8-20 
mm.  diam  on  both  plants 

Tomato-1  plant 
vig.  10 

leaflets  inoc. 

No.  2 

March  3,  75%  infection;  spots' 4-6 
mm.  diam. 

)r.  13 

Potato  strain. 

A.  solani;  spores 
from  culture 

S 0 lanu  m n ig  rum- 
1 pi  ant  4in.high; 
vig. 

No.  1 ; 

April  20,  90%  with  spots  1-4  mm. 
diam. 

Fggplant-l  plant 
3 in.  high;  vig. 

No  1 i 

April  20,  100%  infection;  spots  1-2 
cm.  diam. 

White  Burley 
tobacco-'iPlants 
6 in.  high;  vig. 

No.  1 

i 

April  20,  few  spots  1 mm.  diam. 

no  further  enlargement 

pr.  13 

Potato  strain, 

A . solani;  spores 

Potato-1  plant 
10  in.  high;  vig. 

No.  3 

April  20,  minute  spots  on  every 
leaf  ; wet  continuously 

from  culture 

Tomato-1  plant 
8 in.  high;  vig. 

No.  3 1 

April  20,  few  spots;  not  wet  con- 
tinuously 

Eggplant-1  plant 
4 in.  high;  vig. 

No.  3 ! 

1 

April  20,  many  spots  on  every 

leaf;  wet  continuously 

ay  7 

Potato  strain, 

A.  solani;  spores 
from  culture 

Potato-1  plant 
14  in.  high;  vig. 

No.  3 

May  14,  many  spots  1-3  mm. diam. 

Tomato-2  plants 
16  in.  high;  vig. 

No.  3 

May  14,  few  spots  on  lower  leaves, 
j 2-3  mm.  diam. 

Solanum  nigrum 
-2  large  plants; 

1 fairly  vig. 

No.  3 

i May  14.  few  spots  on  lower  leaves, 
j 1-5  mm.  diam. 

1 

!di'.  14 

Eggplant  strain; 
spores  from  cul- 
ture 

Eggplant-i  plant 
5 in.  liigh;  very 
vig. 

No.  1 

1 April  20,  100%  with  spots  3-4  mm. 
' diam. 

' 

Potato-1  plant 
12  in,  high;  vig. 

No.  1 

April  20,  90%  with  spots  1-3  mm. 
, diam. 

Tomato-1  plant 
12  in,  high;  veri’ 
vig. 

I No.  1 

April  20,  80%  with  .‘jpots  2-3  mm. 
diam;  enlarge  very 
slowly 

'.pr.  14 

Tomato  strain; 
spores  from  cul- 
ture 

Tomato-1  plant 
- 12  in.  high;  veri 

vig. 

j No.  1 

r| 

April 20,  100%  with  spots  2-3  mm. 
diam, 

i 

Potato- 1 plant 
15  in.  high;  vig 

No.  1 

April  20,  100%  with  spots  3-4  mm. 
i diam. 

— 

] 

Esrgplant-1  plan 
8 in.  high;  vig. 

t No.  1 

April  20.  100%  with  spots  6-8  mm. 
1 diam. 

' 

8 


Resp:arch  Bulletin  42 


These  experiments  are  briefly’  summarized  in  Table  I.  In  most 
cases  reisolations  from  the  infected  plants  were  successful.  The 
results  siiow  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  Alternaria  solani 
f]-om  potato  crossed  readily  to  tomato  and  egg-plant,  to  some  ex- 
tent to  nightshade  (Solanum  nigrum),  and  to  cultivated  to- 
bacco. In  the  latter  case,  penetration  occurred,  but  the  mycelium 
seemed  to  be  unable  to  spread  in  the  tissues  of  these  vigorous 
seedlings. 

The  strains  isolated  from  tomato  and  egg-plant  reciprocally 
crossed  quite  readily  and  both  in  turn  produced  a spotting  of 
polato  in  no  wise  different  from  that  of  ordinary  early  blight  on 
potato.  Aside  from  a few  explainable  exceptions  the  uninocu- 
lated needle  punctures  healed,  and  in  method  3,  the  plants  ex- 
posed beside  the  inoculated  plants  never  developed  spots.  There- 
fore it  seems  justifiable  to  conclude  that  the  early  blight  of  po- 
tato, tomato,  and  egg-plant  are  caused  by  one  and  the  same  or- 
ganism, viz.,  Alternaria  solani. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  working  with  inature  plants  in  the 
greenhouse  it  was  decided  to  continue  the  tests  under  field  con- 
ditions. 

Field  Inoculations 

Field  tests  were  carried  out  at  Waupaca  in  central  Wisconsin 
during  the  summer  of  1916.  In  order  to  determine  within  what 
limits  the  parasitism  of  this  fungus  is  confined,  it  seemed  de- 
sirable to  obtain  a wide  range  of  plants,  especially  as  to  genera, 
of  the  potato  family.  The  effort  was  successful  only  to  a limited 
extent  because  it  was  impossible,  on  a few  months  notice  to  get 
seed,  particularly  of  the  wild  members  of  the  family.* 

Fight  to  ten  plants  of  each  species  and  variety  were  properly 
s])aced  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  with  every  third  row  in  po- 
tatoes to  furnish  a basis  for  comparison.  The  potatoes  were 
planted  iNlay  11  and  the  other  plants  were  transferred  from  the 
greenliouse  in  early  June.  The  severe  and  prolonged  drought  dur- 
ing July  and  August  proved  a serious  setback,  but  by  artificial 
watei'ing  most  of  the  plants  made  normal  growth.  Prior  to  Sep- 


*Tlie  writer  is  indebted  to  Messrs.  Peter  Bisset.  Plant  Introducer  U.  S. 
Uept.  of  .Agriculture.  T.  Aloore,  Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  St.  Louis,  and 
W.  S.  Oswald.  Minnesota  Seed  Labratory  for  seeds  or  plants  furnished  for 
this  work. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


9 


tember  4 conditions  for  natural  infection  were  very  unfavorable 
and  spots  which  appeared  earlier  on  the  potato  did  not  spread.  On 
account  of  the  extreme  heat,  artificial  conditions  for  infection 
could  not  be  maintained  with  the  means  at  hand.  After  August 
15,  several  plants  of  each  species  were  atomized  occasionally 
with  spores  in  order  to  have  the  plants  ready  for  rainy  weather 
when  such  a favorable  condition  for  infection  should  arrive. 
Spores  from  pure  culture  of  the  potato  strain  w^ere  used.  Sep- 
tember 8,  several  leaves  on  selected  plants  of  each  species  were 
inoculated  by  the  needle  prick  method,  i.  e.  by  placing  a drop 
of  heavy  spore  suspension  on  each  puncture  but  always  leaving 
an  equal  number  uninoculated  for  control.  The  drought  was 
broken  on  September  4 when  a period  of  moist  weather  with 
heavy  dews  and  rains  set  in,  furnishing  ideal  conditions  for  in- 
fection by  Alternaria  solani. 

The  main  results  from  these  field  inoculations  are  presented 
in  Table  II  which  shows:  (1)  size  and  condition  of  the  plants 
on  September  19  and  (2)  the  progress  of  the  disease  two  weeks 
after  and  one  month  after  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  period. 

In  most  cases  an  attempt  was  made  to  reisolate  the  fungus 
from  the  smaller  spots  even  where  sporulation  occurred  on  large 
spots  of  the  same  plant.  In  several  instances,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  fungus  was  not  reisolated  though  spores  are  recorded 
for  the  larger  spots.  This  was  probably  due  to  the  presence  in 
the  plates  of  the  saprophytic  fungus,  Alternaria  fascwulata, 
which  is  the  more  rapid  grower  and  is  difficult  to  eliminate.  In- 
oculations on  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  9,  13,  14,  24,  and  26  were  repeated  in 
the  pathological  garden  at  Madison,  Wis.,  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober, 1916.  As  the  results  agree  in  all  essentials  with  those 
tabulated,  for  the  sake  of  brevity  they  are  not  listed  here. 

The  table  shows  that  the  fungus  was  able  to  penetrate  almost 
every  plant  inoculated.  Even  the  leathery,  succulent  leaves  of 
*8.  grandiflorum  and  8.  guttata  were  infected  as  was  the  potato. 
Leaves  of  the  former  inoculated  September  2 were  found  to  be 
thickly  peppered  with  tiny  infection  spots  September  9.  These 
spots,  which  measured  less  than  two  millimeters  in  diameter,  had 
made  no  enlargement  when  the  leaves  were  again  examined  a 
month  later.  Yet  when  cultures  were  made  from  such  spots, 
October  14,  almost  every  one  developed  the  fungus.  What  checks 
the  advance  of  the  fungus  in  the  tissues  of  these  plants  is  not 


Table  II— Results  op  Field  Inoculations  with  Alternaria  Solani  on  Various  Golanaceous  Plants 


10 


Research  Bulletin  42 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


11 


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Taijle  II — Results  of  Field  Inoculations  with  Alteknaria  Solani  on  Various  Solanaceous  Plants — Continued 


12 


Research  Bulletin  42 


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Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


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Research  Bulletin  42| 


known.  It  is  believed  that  such  plants,  i.  e.,  those  on  which  the 
spots  do  not  enlarge,  should  not  be  considered  as  hosts,  since  on 
them  the  fungus  does  not  produce  spores  and  therefore  can- 


FIG.  3.— POTATO  EARLY  BLIGHT  SPOTS  ENLARGED  X 3 

Thfs?  show  the  typical  black  target  board  appearance.  (Photograph  by 
H.  H.  WTietzel.) 


not  complete  its  life  cycle.  On  this  basis  the  hosts  of  Alternaria  i 
solani  determined  by  these  studies  are  listed  below.* 

1.  Solanum  aviculare  Forst. 

2.  Solanum  caroUnensis  Linn. — Horse  nettle  | 

3.  Solanum  giganteum  Jacq. 

4.  Solanum  melongena  Linn. — Egg-plant  | 

5.  Solanum  nigrum  Linn. — Nightshade 

6.  SoUnnim  nigrum  guinennse  Linn. — Garden  wonderberry 


♦Though  not  included  in  these  studies  it  is  probable  that  the  two  following  ^ 
species  are  also  hosts  of  A.  solani. 

Solanum  covimersc7ii  Dun.  listed  by  Nu.sfdin  (1905)  and  Stuart  (19'' 4).  i| 
Hyocyamns  albiis  T.,inn.  White  Henbane,  according  to  Ferraris  (1913).  ji| 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


15 


7.  Salonum  rostratum  Dim. — Buffalo  burr 

8.  Solarium  tuberosum  Linn, — Potato 

9.  Solarium  warscewiczii  Hort. 

10.  Hyocyamus  niger  Linn. — Black  henbane 

11.  Lycopersicon  esculentum  Mill. — Tomato 

12.  Nicandra  physaloides  Gaertn. — Apple  of  Peru 


FIG.  4.— diagrammatic  REPRESENTATION  OF  A PORTION  OF  SPOT 

ENLARGED 

The  invaded  ti.ssue  shrinks  to  about  one  half  the  original  thickness  of  the  leaf,  and 
the  surface  is  thrown  into  concentric  ridges.  The  cells  are  darkened.  Spores  are  pro- 
duced on  both  surfaces  as  shown  above  intermingled  with  the  hairs. 


During  May,  1916,  inoculations  were  made  on  tomato  fruits 
of  various  ages  freshly  picked  from  greenhouse  plants.  In  two 


16 


Research  Bulletin  42 


trials  spores  atomized  on  the  surface  failed  to  give  infection 
after  10  days  even  though  the  fruits  were  moistened  frequently 
and  kept  in  a damp  chamber.  Under  the  same  conditions  needle 
puncture  inoculations  invariably  resulted  in  infection.  After 
15  days  there  was  only  slight  invasion  about  the  points  of  inocu- 
lation on  the  green  fruits  while  with  the  ripe  fruits  almost  com- 
plete’ rotting  resulted.  McCubbin  (1916)  in  Ontario,  reports 
similar  results  from  inoculations  of  tomato  fruits.  Needle 
puncture  inoculations  were  made  on  mature  fruits  of  egg  plant 
and  green  pepper  during  August,  1916.  In  each  case  slight  inva- 
sion of  the  tissues  about  the  punctures  occurred  but  no  en- 
larged spots  or  decay  resulted. 

Of  the  nine  genera  of  the  potato  family  tested,  four  only 
were  found  able  to  perpetuate  the  fungus,  viz.,  Solanum,  Lycop- 
ersicon,  Nicandra  and  Hyocyamus.  Of  these  the  Solanums 
though  showing  considerable  variation  appear  as  a group  to  be 
the  most  susceptible.  Prom  these  experiments  it  is  evident  that 
A.  solani  is  not  restricted  within  very  narrow  limits  in  its  host 
relationsliip. 

Pathological  Anatomy  . 

An  explanation  of  the  ‘Aarget  board  effect”  (Figs.  3 and  4) 
characteristic  of  this  disease  is  suggested  by  Jones  (1896).  He 
believes  that  such  a condition  is  produced  by  the  more  complete 
collapse  and  rapid  contraction  of  the  interior  cells  or  mesophyll 
as  compared  with  the  epidermal  cells.  A study  of  microtome 
sections  of  spots  in  various  stages  of  development  shows  that 
greatest  contraction  occurs  in  the  spongy  tissue  which  would 
tend  to  throw  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf  into  concentric  folds. 

In  the  spot  the  cells  are  collapsed,  shrunken,  and  deeply 
stained  (Pig.  5).  No  evidence  has  been  obtained  to  show  that 
the  failure  of  small  spots  to  enlarge  on  vigorous  leaves  was  due 
to  suberized  layers  or  other  mechanical  hindrance  to  invasion. 
On  the  contrary,  all  evidence  indicates  the  resistance  to  be  di- 
rectly  related  to  the  vigor  of  the  leaf.  Though  the  fungus  has 
never  been  actually  observed  inside  the  cells  of  the  host,  there 
seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  cannot  enter  them.  Penetra- 
tion of  the  leaf  usually  occurs  directly  through  the  epidermis, 
and  in  pure  culture  the  fungus  can  utilize  cellulose  when  this  is 
offered  as  its  only  source  of  carbon. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


17 


The  Causal  Organism 
taxonomy 

In  the  literature  on  early  blight  the  fungus  is  commonly  re- 
ferred to  under  the  following  names— d/cfcro.sporuHH  solani  El- 
lis and  Martin,  Alternarin  solani  (E.  & M.)  Jones  and  Grout, 
and  Alternaria  solani  Sorauer.  In  foreign  references  the  latter 
is  in  more  general  use  while  the  second  occurs  most  frequently 
in  accounts  of  the  disease  in  America.  Sorauer  (1896)  publisheri 


FIG.  5.— CROSS  SECTION  OF  LEAF  SHOWING  INCIPIENT  INFECTION 
OF  alternaria  solani 

Penetration  usually  occurs  directly  through  the  cuticle.  Shrinkage  follows  the  death 

of  the  cells.  XI^O. 

on  the  fungus  a few  months  in  advance  of  Jones  (1896),  but  hi^' 
observations  and  illustrations  of  spore  chains,  as  he  found  them 
in  crude  hanging  drop  cultures,  show  plainly  that  his  descrip- 
tion was  based  on  Alternaria  fasciculata.  From  type  material 
received  from  Sorauer.  Jones  separated  the  two  fungi,  the  one 
a typical  Alternaria  and  a saprophyte  which  he  subsequently 
named  Alternaria  fasciculata,  and  the  other  the  true  parasite 
{Macrosporium  solani).  Jones  reports  frequent  cases  where 
spores  in  cultures  of  the  Macrosporium  were  joined  in  catenu- 
late  pairs  after  the  fashion  of  the  Alternarias.  He  then  writes  a 


18 


Research  Bulletin  42 


technical  description  and  gives  Sorauer  the  credit  for  the  new 
combination.  Seymour  (correspondence),  however,  later  ruled 
that  inasmuch  as  Sorauer  had  applied  the  binominal  confusedly, 
authority  for  the  new  combination  should  rest  with  Jones  and 
his  assistant  (Jones  and  Grout  1897).  This  is  the  usage  of  Far- 
low  (1905)  and  of  most  recent  American  authors.  Me  Alpine 
(1903)  and  Duggar  (1909)  have  objected  to  calling  the  fungus 
an  Alternaria  on  the  ground  that  the  catenulation  of  spores  does 
not  occur  in  nature.  The  author  has  examined  many  spots  and 


Spores  drawn  from  pure  culture  where  catenulation  has  been  noted.  X200. 

has  never  seen  catenulation  on  the  leaves.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  on  oat  meal  agar  cultures,  spore  pairs  frequently  occur 
(Fig.  6).  In  view  of  the  chaotic  condition  of  the  literature  deal- 
ing with  Macrosporium  and  Alternaria  and  the  slight  and  un- 
certain distinctions  between  the  genera,  the  author  considers  it 
inadvisable  to  break  away  from  the  well  established  usage  and 
go  back  to  Mascrosporium. 

The  following  is  the  probable  synonomy  of  the  fungus  with 
citations  to  the  literature: 

Alternaria  solani  CE.  & M.)  Jones  and  Grout. 

Bull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club  23:353.  Sept.  1896. 

Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  10:45.  1896. 

Macrosporium  solani  E.  & M. 

American  Naturalist  16:1003.  1882. 

Macrosporium  solani  Cooke,  (in  part) 

Grevillia  12:32.  1883. 

Macrosporium  cookei  Sacc.  (in  part),  (following  Cooke) 

Sacc.  Sylloge  Fungorum  4:530.  1896. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants  19 


Alternaria  solani  Sorauer  (in  part). 

Zeitschr.  fiir  Pflanzenkrankheiten  6:6.  1896. 

Sporidesmium  solani  var.  varians  Vanha. 

Naturw.  Ztschr.  Land  - u.  Forstw.  2:113-127.  1904. 


MORPHOLOGY 

The  mycelium  at  the  margin  of  the  spot  can  be  seen,  using  in 
toto  fixations,  as  slender,  radiating,  sparsely  branched  filaments. 
Later  it  becomes  closely  branched,  irregular,  and  deeply  stained. 
Gonidiophores  have  never  been  found  arising  nearer  than  one- 


1 FIG.  7,— SPORE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ALTERNARIA  SOLANI 


Progressive  stages  commencing  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner.  Note  that  the  spore 
i starts  by  budding  from  the  tip  of  the  apical  cell  of  the  conidophore  as  shown  in  the 
second  and  third  stages.  Dravm  from  culture  X400. 

half  a millimeter  from  the  boundary  of  green  tissue.  Usually 
' one  spore  is  produced  on  a conidiophore.  The  conidia  arise  from 
: the  conidiophore,  not  by  the  constriction  and  subsequent  enlarge- 
: ment  of  a terminal  cell,  but  from  a bud  which  forms  on  that  cell. 
(Pig.  7.)  The  first  indication  of  the  bud  is  a faint  hyaline  area 
I on  the  wall.  Soon  (often  within  a few  minutes) , the  wall  at  this 
1 place  pushes  out  and  forms  a minute  projection  which  has  an  ex- 
I tremely  thin  wall  and  is  less  than  one-fifth  the  diameter  of  the 
I conidiophore.  This  bud  grows  very  rapidly  at  first  and,  on 
I this  account,  the  early  stages  are  not  easily  followed. 


I 


20 


Research  Bulletin  42 


A method  for  obtaining  abundant  sporulation  in  pure  cul- 
tures of  this  fungus  is  described,  elsewhere.*  Spores  thus  pro- 
duced show  greater  uniformity  in  size  than  those  from  the  spots. 
Measurements  of  100  spores  from  large,  typical  early  blight 
spots  on  potato  leaves  gave  a range  in  size  of  120-296  x12-20 
microns,  an  average  size  of  200  x 17  microns.  The  same  number 
taken  from  several  pure  cultures  on  potato  agar  gave  a range 
of  104-184  X 14-18  microns,  an  average  of  141  x 16  microns. 

Nothing  to  date  has  indicated  the  existence  of  a perfect  stage 
of  this  fungus.  Overwintered  material  has  been  examined  and 
the  fungus  has  been  grown  on  man}-  kinds  of  media  of  varying 
degrees  of  acidity  and  exposed  to  various  temperatures  but  no 
indications  of  another  stage  have  developed. 

PHYSIOLOGY 

Alternaria  solani  is  easily  isolated  from  the  spots  or  from 
spores,  and  grows  well  on  all  the  ordinary  culture  media.  Per- 
haps the  most  striking  physiological  characteristic  of  the  fungus 
is  the  intense  discoloration  which  it  produces  in  the  medium. 
On  potato  agar,  young  colonies  cause  a clear  yellow  pigmenta- 
tion Avhich,  as  the  colony  enlarges,  spreads  in  advance  of  the  my- 
celium and  is  eventually  succeeded  beneath  the  older  part  by  a 
deep  wine  color.  In  media  made  +20  Fuller’s  scale,  the  colora- 
tion approaches  a deep  brick  red  in  some  cases.  On  slightly  acid 
media  the  yellow  pigmentation  predominates  and  it  is  practi- 
cally absent  in  alkaline  media,  where  also  little  growth  occurs. 
There  is  likewise  no  discoloration  when  the  fungus  is  grown  on 
+ 10  to  +1T)  casein  agar,  nutrient  gelatin  containing  dextrose, 
starch-nitrate  agar,  and  cellulose  agar.  After  7 to  10  generations 
in  pure  culture  the  pigmentation  is  much  diminished  and  in 
some  cases  has  been  observed  to  almost  disappear. 

The  fungus  readily  liquefies  the  above  gelatin  medium  and 
shows  great  proteoclastic  activity  in  the  utilization  of  casein  as 
indicated  by  the  clear  zone  surrounding  the  colony  when  lactic 
a('id  is  added  to  a casein  agar  plate.  Nitrates  are  quickly  re- 
duced to  nitrites  and  even  to  ammonia  when  tested  on  starch- 
nitrate  agar. 


♦riiytopatholoyy  7:  316-317.  1917.  This  iriethod  consists,  in  .severely 

wounding  the  mycelium  by  shreddine:  a ion  da>'  old  cultui-e  of  the  fungus 
on  i)otato  agar,  and  second,  fo»-  24  hours,  controlling  the  moisture  relation  so 
that  the  surface  dees  not  become  dry. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


21 


Temperature  relations. — Both  spore  germination  and  colony 
growth  of  A.  solani  are  greatly  intluenced  by  temperature.  At 
20  °C.,  ordinarily  five  to  ten  germ-tubes  arise  from  the  different 
cells  of  a single  spore,  while  at  1-3 °C.,  germination  will  finally 
occur,  but  with  no  more  than  2 or  3 germ-tubes.  (Fig.  8.)  Spores 
germinated  at  a low  temperature  generally  produce  several 


FIG.  8.— GEUMINATION  OF  SPORES  OF  ALTERNARIA  SOLANI 

Temperature  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  number  of  germ  tubes  and  the 
rate  of  germination;  the  two  spores  to  left  with  the  greater  number  of  germ  tubes 
after  1 hours  at  35°  C.  ; the  spore  to  the  right  with  fewer  germ  tubes 
after  46  hours  at  1-2°  C. 

more  germ-tubes  when  removed  to  a higher  temperature.  Ex- 
tended studies  have  been  made  of  spore  germination  in  agar 
under  seventeen  different  temperatures  ranging  from  2 to  45 °C., 
in  which  at  intervals  the  approximate  length  and  number  of 
germ-tubes  were  determined.  These  results  are  plotted  in  Fig.  9. 
At  all  temperatures  from  6 to  34° C.,  the  spores  germinated 
within  one  and  one-half  hours.  Germination  took  place  most 
rapidly  at  28-30°,  requiring  at  those  temperatures  but  35  to  45 


22 


Research  Bulletin  42 


minutes.  The  germ-tubes  formed  at  37°  were  irregular  anc 
knotted  with  bladder-like  swellings  at  the  tip.  Growth  entirely 
ceased  after  six  hours  and  subsequent  transference  to  a lowei 
temperature  showed  that  they  were  dead.  At  45°  the  spore: 
were  killed  before  any  indication  of  germination  appeared. 


FIG.  9.— THE  EFFECT  OF  VARIOUS  TEMP*ERATURES  ON  SPORE  GE 
MINATION  AND  GROWTH  OF  ALTERNARIA  SOLANI 

At  most  temperatures  germination  commenced 
optimum  is  26-28°  C.  At  45°  C the  spores  were  killed. 


Measurements  of  colonies  grown  at  these  different  tempei 
tures  give  a graph  similar  to  that  obtained  for  spore  germii 
tion.  However,  no  growth  visible  to  the  naked  eye  took  place 
3°  or  at  45°C.,  while  at  37°  there  was  a slight  amount  of  aer 
mycelium.  The  cardinal  temperatures  of  the  fungus  are  the 
fore  approximately  as  follows:  minimum  1°— 2 C.,  optinii 
2r)°-28°,  and  maximum  37°-45°. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


23 


Life  History  of  A.  Solani  in  Relation  to  Early  Blight 

SEASONAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  DISEASE 

The  time  at  which  this  disease  makes  its  appearance  each  year 
seems  to  depend  largely  upon  the  date  at  which  the  crop  was 
planted  and  upon  its  subsequent  development  as  influenced  by 
soil  and  climate.  It  may  be  safely  concluded  that  as  soon  as  the 
crop  has  passed  its  stage  of  greatest  vigor  and  tuber  formation 
has  begun,  early  blight  may  develop.  Whether  or  not  the  at- 
tack becomes  severe  depends  almost  entirely  on  influencing  fac- 
tors later  enumerated. 

SPORE  PRODUCTION 

Spore  production  is  usually  delayed  until  after  the  death 
of  the  host  tissues.  Very  rarely  are  spores  found  on  spots  less 
than  four  millimeters  in  diameter.  Both  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  a spot  produce  spores,  the  upper  much  more  abundantly, 
however.  They  are  very  easily  dislodged,  especially  by  rainfall. 
While  considerable  variation  has  been  noted  in  the  relative  abun- 
dance of  spores  on  spots  of  different  sizes,  it  was  desired  to  get 
some  idea  of  the  actual  numbers  which  may  occur.  For  this 
purpose,  spots  developed  under  as  favorable  natural  conditions 
for  sporulation  as  possible  were  obtained  and  counts  made. 
Each  spot  cut  carefully  from  the  leaf  was  rinsed  in  a given 
volume  of  water  which,  with  a small  amount  of  leached  agar, 
was  poured  into  a level  petri  dish.  One-tenth  areas  were  marked 
off  with  a bacteriological  counting  card.  After  germination  had 
begun  the  spores  in  two  such  areas  were  counted  by  means  of  the 
low  power  of  the  microscope.  The  following  results  were  ob- 
tained : 


Diameter  of  Distribution  as  noted  on  spot  Number  of 

spot  spores 

10mm.  Apparently  equally  abund.  on  both  surfaces  1475 

7mm.  Few  below,  abundant  above  930 

10mm.  About  one-half  as  many  below  as  above  785 

5mm.  Few  below,  abundant  in  center  above  415 

8mm.  Scattered  on  both  surfaces  140 

6mm.  Few  on  both  surfaces  115 


These  figures  may  give  some  idea  of  the  abundance  of  spores 
which  may  be  produced  on  a badly  diseased  plant  with,  for  in- 
stance, ten  to  fifteen  spots  on  every  leaflet.  The  total  number 


Spot  HrsTORiES  in  Relation  to  Climatic  Conditions  July  13-28 


24 


Research  Bulletin  42 


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, 7x8  mm.  sp. 
4'“!“  ab.  bl. 
esp.  along 
veins:  If. 
vig. 

12x19  mm. 
sp.  -f+  in 
outer  rings 
ab.  -bl;  If. 
dead 

7x9  mm.  sp. 
++  ab.  bl; 
more  ab. 

1 §'3 

s'S 

ls+ 

i 1^3 -f- 
o: 

UIJBM  MBaio 
‘Map  iq.Siq  -qioz 

1 

1 

(uiBj  ajoj 
-aq  apBui  saio^ij) 

' (SI  ) ‘A'pnoio 

•UI  cl  UIJBAV  ‘JBap 
‘Map  ^q3in[  -qiGI 

9x15  mm.  sp. 
—over  cen- 
ter ab:  scat- 
tered bl.  (not 
removed) 

7 mm.  sp. 
— ab; 
++  bl. 

11x19  mm. 
sp.  — scat- 
tered ab; 

-t—h  in  places 
bl. 

S 

SO  , 

>*'  CK 

7x15  mm. 
sp,  o 

injBM  ‘JBap  ‘Map 
AABaq  mnipai^  -qqgX 

8x14  mm.  sp. 
+++  ab.  bl; 
If.  yellow- 
ing 

3 

0 

4 

8x13  mm.  sp. 

both 

surfaces 

1 

7x12  mm. 
sp.  ++  both 
surfaces 

UIJBM  JBap  *ui  -d 
( •lu  -B  sjaAvoqs) 
gO'  uiBj  ‘Apnop 
‘Map  AAB8JI  'qR! 

8x12 
mm..sp. 
o ab; 
++  bl. 

bi) 

gd> 

1 

i 

lUJBAV  ‘JB9p 

‘Avap  AABan  qi9I 

UIJBM  ‘JBap 
‘ UI  B 6 lUun  PAv 
SAI  ‘g?.-  UIBH  qigi 

UIJBM  ‘JBap  ‘A\ap 
AABaq  ‘2  uiBji  -qixi 

UlJBAV  ‘JBap 
‘Map  ^xqaiq  ‘qxgi 

5x8  mm. 
If.  vig: 
sp.  -1- 
ab.  — 
bl. 

1 

■SON  Pu^ 

^ 1 

X3 

ce 

CNJ 

1 

CM  1 

cd 

CO 

Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


25 


d 

a 

GO 

i 

o 

a 

aj 

12x13  mm.  sp. 
-f  + ab.  bl . 
esp.  on  vein- 
lets 

14  mm.  sp. 
H — h + ab : 
places  bl; 
If.  dead 

No  change; 
sp.  H — h ab. 
near  ctr; 
-bl:  If. 
dead 

- 

■t- 
H i Ol 

SO  ' 

o 

14  mm.  sp. 
4-+-f  ab. 
places  bl. 
If.  dead 

1 

' 7x9  mm.  sp. 
“( — 1“  ab.  bl 
in  center 

8x9  mm.  sp. 
++  ab.  bl. 
in  center 

10x14  mm. 
sp.  o 

6x9  mm.  sp. 
o but  +-t- 
A.  fascicu- 
lata 

a> 

bt 

1 

O 

11x14  mm. 
sp.  o 

10x11  mm. 
sp.  4-+  ab. 
bl.  esp.  on 
veinlets 

4x7  mm. 
sp.  o 

1 

1 

6x8  mm. 
sp.  o 

8x13  mm. 
sp.  o 

4x6  mm.  sp. 
-|-+  in  ctr. 
ab:  - bl. 

d2 

s 

8x11  mm. 
sp.  0 

5x8  mm,  sp. 
H — 1 — h ab. 
bl;  If.  dead 

10x12  mm. 
sp.  o;  leaf 
dead 

11x14  mm. 

sp.  -f- h en- 
tire spot  ab. 
bl;'dead 

a • 
S 

®4- 

>^4- 

oo 

4x7  mm.  sp. 
-j — h ab.  bl; 
If.  dead 

1 

1 3x  4 mm.  I 3x5  mm. 

1 Sp.  o sp.  — in 

1 center  ab; 

o bl. 

1 

1 

1 

! 

1 

a 

! S o 
1 2 ^ 

|5” 

1 

1 

10x12  mm.  sp. 
— young, 
ab.  bl. 

10x12  mm. 
sp.  o 

5x7  mm.  sp. 
— ab.  4-4- 
outer  rings 

bl. 

4x7  mm. 
sp.  o 

1 

4x9  mm. 
Sp.  o 

4x5  mm. 
— sp.  ah. 

8x10  mm.  sp. 
4— H more 
bl.  than  ab. 

9x10  mm.  Sp. 

t-  both 
surfaces 

a- 

S'l 

X O 

1, 

CO 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 : 

1 ! 

1 ; 

1 1 

1 ! 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

CO 

3c 

4a 

4b 

5a 

oS 

7b 

Abbreviations:  If.,  leaf;  Iflt.,  leaflet:  sp..  spore,  or  sporulation:  ab.,  above:  bl..  below;  +++,  very  abundant;  ++,  abundant;  +,  many;  — , few;  o,  none. 


26 


Research  Bulletin  42 


may  be  further  increased  during  favorable  weather  by  the  ma-  I 
turity  of  a second  or  even  a third  crop  of  spores. 

Effect  of  various  factors  on  spore  production;  spot  his- 
tories.—By  following  the  history  of  a number  of  spots,  a better 
idea  was  obtained  of  the  effect  of  various  environmental  condi- 
tions on  the  progress  of  the  disease.  For  this  study,  Early  Ohio 
plants  were  selected  showing  a few  scattered  spots  on  the  mature 
leaves.  Each  spot  was  measured  with  a millimeter  scale  and 
both  surfaces  were  examined  for  the  presence  of  spores  with  a 
small  low  power  microscope.  Meanwhile  great  care  was  taken 
not  to  injure  the  leaves  in  any  way.  If  spores  were  present 
their  relative  abundance  was  noted  after  which  they  were  rinsed 
and  brushed  off  by  use  of  a pipette  of  distilled  water  and  a soft; 
camel’s  hair  brush.  The  spot  tissue  became  somewhat  wet  but' 
the  heat  of  the  day  caused  it  to  dry  out  again  in  a few  minutes.  | 
The  results  of  these  observations  are  shown  in  Table  III.  The 
effect  of  light  rainfalls,  especially  those  of  July  17  and  24,  in 
removing  the  spores  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  exposed 
spots  is  seen.  The  most  important  evidence  obtained  relates,; 
to  the  ability  of  the  spot  for  continued  spore  production.  It 
shows  that  the  same  area  on  some  of  the  spots  produced  three 
and  four  abundant  crops  of  spores.  There  is  also  some  evidence 
on  the  relation  of  rain  and  dew  to  spore  production.  It  seems 
quite  certain  that  the  unusually  heavy  sporulation  noted  on  July 
18  was  largely  the  result  of  the  moist  period  beginning  with  the 
heavy  dew  of  the  night  of  the  16th  and  continuing  through  tk, 
forenoon  of  the  17th ; then  a fairly  heavy  dew  that  night  wat, 
sufficient  to  stimulate  the  fungus  to  unusual  spore  formation, 
Another  instance  seeming  to  corroborate  this  evidence  is  thajj 
of  July  21  when  spores  were  found  generally  abundant.  Hew: 
the  relatively  cool  weather  on  July  20  following  the  rain  of  thi: 
19th  and  the  very  heavy  dew  that  night  furnished  the  propel 
conditions  for  spore  production. 

To  obtain  further  evidence  on  the  ef6ect  of  rain  and  dew  or 
spore  formation,  another  series  of  spots  was  studied.  These  o 
servations  extended  from  August  25  to  September  ^ 6, 

Three  large  plants  of  the  Green  Mountain  variety,  bearing 
spots  on  most  of  the  leaves,  were  selected.  Plant  A was  pro 
tooted  from  dew  at  night,  and  from  rains,  when  imminent,  b} 
placing  over  it  a de\v-proof  cage.  Plants  B and 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


27 


were  not  protected.  The  spots  were  examined  as  in  the  pre- 
vious study,  but  instead  of  removing  the  spores  with  water  and 
camel’s  hair  brush,  the  brush  alone  was  used.  This  method  was 
equally  effective  while  being  easier  of  manipulation.  The  results 
from  this  series  are  shown  in  Table  IV.  Fortunately  a rather 
dry  period  was  selected  for  this  study  which  made  it  possible  to 
determine  the  effect  of  the  single  factor,  dew,  on  spore  forma- 
tion. Prior  to  this  experiment,  the  writer  had  believed  that 
moderately  heavy  dews  were  sufficient  to  induce  abundant  spor- 
ulation  of  the  fungus.  The  observations  recorded  in  Table  IV 
show  that  even  very  heavy  dews  each  night  were,  with  few 
exceptions,  insufficient.  The  period  of  the  experiment  was 
marked,  as  a whole,  by  rather  cool  weather  (see  Fig.  10)  and 
where  heavy  dews  are  recorded  it  is  positive  that  the  plant  sur- 
face was  wet  from  8 p.  m.  until  7-8  ;30  a.  in.  Dews  alone  were 
not  sufficient  but  they,  when  aided  by  .9  in.  rainfall  (Sept.  5), 
caused  abundant  sporulation  on  all  the  spots  exposed.  Plant  A, 
protected,  showed  none  or  only  a few  spores  on  the  spots.  There- 
fore, concluding  from  both  experiments,  it  appears  that  fre- 
quent rains  aided  by  heavy  dews  furnish  the  essential  moisture 
conditions  for  optimum  spore  production  of  A.  solani  in  nature. 

VIABILITY  AND  LONGEVITY  OF  MYCELIUM  AND  CONIDIA 

Jones  (1896)  states  that  the  mycelium  in  the  spot  retains  its 
life  for  a year  or  more.  The  writer’s  results  in  the  main  cor- 
roborate this.  Leaves  dried  between  layers  of  cotton  yielded  the 
fungus  from  both  small  and  large  spots  when  isolations  were 
made  after  12  and  18  months.  Material  29  months  old,  appar- 
ently as  well  preserved,  gave  no  growth  of  the  fungus  in  several 
attempts  at  isolation.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of 
any  differentiated  or  resistant  form  of  mycelium  in  the  spots.  In 
pure  culture,  mycelium  in  prune  agar  was  found  viable  after 
seven  months.  Potato  agar  plates,  tested  for  viability  after  15 
and  17  months  gave  negative  results.  The  recent  work  of  Bartram 
(1916)  shows  conclusively  the  great  resistance  of  the  mycelium 
of  this  fungus  in  pure  culture  to  very  low  temperatures. 

The  condia  are  also  very  resistant.  Jones  (1896)  succeeded 
in  germinating  conidia  one  year  old  but  obtained  no  growth 
from  those  two  years  old.  In  one  instance  the  writer  got  10  per 
cent  germination  after  17  months  at  room  temperature. 


'POT  Histories  on  Green  Mountain  Variety:  Aug.  25-Sept.  6,  191(3 


Plant  C.  Expose n to 
Rain  and  Dew 

Leaf 

3c 

8mm.  2 
soots,  no 
spores 

a 

to 

> 

O 

J 

P 

PQ 

CTIN  42 

1 

o 2 

No 

spores 

Leaf  ] 
2c 

8x1 2mm. 

few 

spores 

above, 

none 

below 

No 

spores 

/ 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

Ic 

15mm. 

abun- 

dant 

spores 

above, 

few 

below 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Plant  B.  Exposed  to  Rajn  and  II 
, Dew 

Leaf 

4b 

12xl4mm. 
enor- 
mous 
sporula- 
tion  both 
surfaces 

No  spores 

1 

No  spores 

Leaf 

3b 

4mm. 

few 

spores ' 

above, 

none 

below 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

2b 

Large  i 
margi-  1 
nal  spot, 
enor-  j 
mous  1 
sporula- 
tion  ! 

both 
surfaces 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

lb 

6mm.  2 

spots 

none 

above, 

few 

below 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 


Plant  A.  Pkotected  From  Rain  and  Dew 

Leaf 
7a  . 

12mm. 

few 

spores 

center 

both 

surfaces 

No 

spores 

) 

£ :l 

Z m 1 

Leaf 

6a 

1 

2 spots 
enor- 
mous 
sporul- 
ation 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

5a 

6mm.  no 
spores 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

4a 

'J 

8mm.  no 
spores 

No 

spores 

C/1  i 1 

OR  M' 
z R * 

0)  CO 

h-5 

1 

4mm. 

few 

spores 

both 

surfaces 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

2a 

[ 

2 spots 

5x8mm. 

few 

spores 

both 

surfaces 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

Leaf 

la 

3 spots 
4x5mm. 
no 

spores 

i 

1 

No 

spores 

No 

spores 

1 W..5'7 

1 

Date  and 
Weather 
Conditions 

Aug.  25.  No 

dew:  cloudy, 
windy,  cool 

' 

Aug.  26.  No 
dew;  cloudy, 
windy,  cool 

Aug.  27. 

Med.  oew; 
partly 
cloudy,  cool 

Aug.  28. 

Very  heavy 
dew;  partly 
cloudy, warm 

1 

Aug.  29. 

Heavy  dew; 
clear,  warm 

Aug.  30. 

Ver.v  heavy 
dew;  clear, 
windy , warm 

(, 


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30 


Research  Bulletin  42 


DISSEMINATION  OF  CONIDIA 

The  suddenness  of  appearance  of  a general  and  severe  infec- 
tion of  early  blight  following  a period  of  favorable  weather  has 
been  noted  by  various  workers.  Observational  data  accumulated 
during  the  summers  of  1915  and  1916  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
wind  is  the  chief  agent  of  dissemination  in  such  cases.  For  in- 
stance, a field  of  early  potatoes  at  Waupaca,  Wisconsin,  was 
noted  to  be  suffering  severely  from  early  blight  and  tip-burn  to 
the  extent  that  on  September  11,  1916,  the  majority  of  the  vines 
were  dead  while  an  adjacent  field  of  Rurals  on  the  south  was 
green  and  showed  but  relatively  few  spots.  However,  on  a strip 
of  the  latter  about  80  feet  wide,  adjacent  to  the  early  field,  the 
disease  was  much  more  prevalent,  but  the  number  of  spots  was 
noted  to  decrease  as  one  proceeded  from  the  boundary  line.  To 
determine  the  relative  occurrence  of  spots,  typical  leaves  were 
picked  from  the  first  two  or  three  rows  next  to  the  early  field 
and  an  equal  number  75  feet  back.  The  spots  were  counted,  in- 
cluding all  the  leaflets  on  each  compound  leaf.  12  leaves  of  lot 
1 each  bore  45  to  356  spots,  average  175  spots  per  leaf;  12  leaves 
of  lot  2 each  bore  20  to  141  spots  average  71  spots  per  leaf.  Since 
potato  beetles  were  practically  absent  from  this  field  and  strong 
north  winds  with  favorable  conditions  for  spore  production  and 
infection  had  occurred  the  preceding  week,  all  evidence  pointed 
to  the  wind  as  responsible  for  the  general  dissemination  over  this 
adjacent  area. 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  Colorado  beetle  is  an- 
other agent  of  distribution  for  Alternaria  spores.  Twice  during 
July,  1916,  the  examinations  of  washings  from  the  beetles  were 
made.  Fifty  adult  beetles  collected  from  diseased  potato  vines 
were  dipped  and  shaken  for  a moment  in  ten  cubic  centimeters  of 
sterile  watet  from  which  microscopic  examination  and  poured 
plates  showed  abundant  spores.  Numerous  contaminating  sap- 
rophytes prevented  the  actual  number  of  spores  from  being  de- 
termined. 


METHOD  OF  INFECTION 

According  to  Jones  (1896)  penetration  may  occur  either 
through  the  stomates  or  dircetly  through  the  cuticle.  With 
proper  conditions  the  young  leaves  of  a plant  can  be  infected  as 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


31 


readily  as  the  older  ones  but  the  rate  of  enlargement  of  the  spot 
is  distinctly  slower  in  the  young  leaves. 

Though  infections  in  nature  frequently  occur  about  flea  beetle 
holes,  the  observations  of  several  earlier  investigators  as  well  as 
those  of  the  writer  indicate  ^no  necessary  relation  between  the 
two.  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  these  little  beetles  may 
carry  the  spores,  as  is  shown  for  the  Colorado  beetle  and  as  a 
result  inoculate  the  wounds  they  make. 

PERIOD  OF  INCUBATION 

In  the  greenhouse  where  the  cover  slip  method  was  used  the 
incubation  period  both  for  potato  and  tomato,  varied  from  28  to 
50  hours.  Under  field  conditions,  relying  entirely  upon  heavy 
dews  for  the  necessary  moisture,  incipient  spots  were  usually  no- 
ticeable within  48  to  72  hours  after  the  spores  had  been  atomized 
upon  the  plant.  Under  favorable  conditions,  within  three  or  four 
days  these  spots  may  enlarge  and  produce  spores  which  can 
cause  secondary  infection  on  adjacent  leaves  or  plants. 

TIME  OF  NATURAL  INFECTION 

As  observed  in  central  Wisconsin,  natural  infection  is  gener- 
ally first  visible  from  June  20  to  July  10  on  the  crop  planted 
April  25  to  May  15.  On  the  late  crop,  spots  may  be  observed 
from  the  middle  of  August  on,  depending  apparently  upon  three 
factors:  age,  vigor  of  plant,  and  weather  conditions. 

SOURCE  OF  NATURAL  INFECTION 

The  source  of  inoculum  for  the  early  crop  is  probably  from  the 
overwintered  spores  and  possibly  from  new  conidia  produced  by 
overwintered  mycelium  which  has  been  harbored  in  the  soil  in 
the  debris  of  former  crops.  It  is  quite  likely  that  an  additional 
source  of  infection  of  the  late  potatoes  is  from  nearby  early  fields 
in  the  form  of  spores  carried  by  the  wind  or  by  potato  beetles 
seeking  the  younger  and  more  tender  plants. 

i 

OVERWINTERING  OF  THE  FUNGUS 

The  problem  of  the  overwintering  of  Alternaria  solani  is 
concerned  with  but  two  possibilities,  i.  e.,  conidia  and  mycelium. 


32 


Resp:arch  Bulletin  42 


It  has  already  been  shown  that  both  these  structures  possess  re- 
markable resistance  toward  unfavorable  conditions. 

The  writer  has  no  evidence  to  substantiate,  and  sees  no  reason 
for  accepting,  the  hypothesis  offered  by  Massee  (1906)  and  en- 
dorsed by  McAlpine  (1911)  that  the  disease  is  transmitted  from 
one  generation  to  another  by  latent  mycelium  in  the  tubers. 

To  determine  definitely  under  what  conditions  the  fungus  can 
overwinter  in  Wisconsin,  the  following  experiment  was  made. 
On  July  22,  1915,  some  very  good  material  showing  abundant 
s})orulation  was  collected  and  the  leaves  dried  quickly  in  the 
open  air.  In  October,  a 6 x 10  foot  plot  in  the  plant  disease 
garden  at  Madison  was  marked  off  into  four  strips  and  used  as 
follows : 

In  No.  1— Diseased  leaves  on  the  surface 
In  No.  2 — Diseased  leaves  buried  two  inches  deep 
In  No.  3 — Diseased  leaves  buried  four  inches  deep 
In  No.  4 — Diseased  leaves  buried  eight  inches  deep 

The  leaves  were  protected  by  being  placed  between  one  thick- 
ness of  cheese  cloth  and  this  in  turn  was  placed  between  two  lay- 
ers of  galvanized  iron  wire  netting.  At  intervals  throughout  the 
winter  material  was  removed  from  each  strip  and  attempts  were 
made  to  isolate  the  fungus  from  it.  The  bulbs  of  soil  thermo- 
graphs were  buried  four  and  eight  inches  in  the  plot  to  furnish 
a continuous  record  of  the  soil  temperatures,  while  an  air  thermo- 
graph nearby  registered  for  the  air.  The  records  from  Novem- 
ber 12  to  April  20  showed  a variation  in  temperature  from  +13 
to  -25°C.,  for  the  air,  +10  to  -6°C.  at  four  inches  depth,  and 
+8  to  -6°r.  at  eight  inches  depth.  On  93  out  of  the  total  of 
1 60  days  foi*  the  period  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow.  The 
extremely  low  temperatures  in  each  case  followed  periods  of 
snowfall  so  that  it  is  probable  that  even  the  material  on  the  sur- 
face was  not  exposed  to  as  low  temperatures  as  were  recorded. 

Before  burying  the  leaves  in  the  fall,  viability  tests  gave  over 
95  per  cent  geimiination  of  the  spores.  Several  attempts  failed 
entirely  to  isolate  the  fungus  from  the  spot  tissues  where  the 
mycelium  appeared  to  be  dead.  This  was  an  unexpected  result, 
wliich  was  not  fully  understood  until  the  following  summer. 
Then  it  was  found  that  the  mycelium  could  frequently  be  killed 
]>y  drying  freshly  collected  leaves  quickly  in  the  sun.  Thus  un- 
fortunately this  test  was  limited  to  the  conidia  alone.  Little 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


33 


difficulty  was  experienced  in  isolating  the  spores  for  germination 
tests  during  the  early  winter,  but  later,  as  the  cheese  cloth  and 
leaf  tissue  disintegrated,  the  conidia  were  more  difficult  to  find. 
On  December  11,  1915,  tests  of  40  to  50  spores  from  each  level 
gave  80  to  90  per  cent  germination.  At  no  time  was  there  any  evi- 
dence of  the  formation  of  new  spores  and  cultures  from  the  spot 
tissue  developed  only  saprophytic  invaders  as  Mucor,  Fusarium, 
Penicillium,  and  Alternaria  fasciculata. 

On  April  17,  1916,  the  final  examinations  were  made  with  the 
following  results: 

(1)  Spores  overwintered  on  the  surface — 2-3  per  cent  germination 

(2)  Spores  overwintered  at  2-inch  depth — 40  per  cent  germination 

(3)  Spores  overwintered  at  4-inch  depth — 50  per  cent  germination 

(4)  Spores  overwintered  at  8-inch  depth — 65-70  per  cent  germi- 

nation 

The  low  figu'.  e for  the  surface  gerndnation  would  probably 
have  been  higher  had  not  the  location  for  the  plot  been  selected 
on  low  ground  wliere  excessive  water  and  ice  made  conditions 
unusually  severe. 

From  this  experiment  it  seems  justifiable  to  conclude  that  a 
relatively  large  proportion  of  the  abundant  spores  produced 
during  the  moist  weather  of  late  autumn  remain  viable  through- 
out the  winter.  The  primary  infections  of  the  next  year  doubt- 
less come  from  such  spores  which  have  overwintered  in  the  soil. 
It  is  easy  for  these  to  reach  the  lower  leaves  which  are  indeed 
often  in  immediate  contact  with  the  soil,  and  it  is  noteworthy 
that  the  primary  infections  always  occur  on  such  low  lying 
leaves.  This  theory  is  in  further  accord  with  the  observed  fact 
that  early  blight  starts  earliest  and  is  worst  on  old  garden  soils 
and  suggests  the  conclusion  that  crop  rotation  is  a factor  in  its 
control. 

THE  RELATION  OF  CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  TO  THE  DISEASE 

Climatic  factors  undoubtedly  exert  a great  influence  upon  the 
dissemination  and  destructiveness  of  early  blight.  As  to  the 
climatic  conditions  best  favoring  an  attack  of  this  disease.  Jones 
(1895)  finds  that  hot,  dry  weather  followed  by  a moist  period  is 
best.  Rolfs  (1898),  in  Florida,  reports  that  the  disease  on  to- 
matoes spread  with  ‘^alarming  rapidity’’  during  moist,  warm 
seasons,  while  dry,  cool  weather  retarded  its  progress.  Lutman 


34  Research  Bulletin  42 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


35 


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36 


Research  Bulletin  42 


(1911)  summarizes  twenty  years’  observation  (1891-1910)  made 
at  the  Vermont  station  mainly  on  the  relation  of  the  weather  to 
late  blight  but  including  data  on  early  blight  and  tip-burn  as 
well.  A careful  study  of  the  twenty  diagrams  and  notes  pre- 
sented shows  so  much  contradictory  evidence  on  the  occurrence 
of  early  blight  that  few  conclusions  are  possible.  His  statement 
that  it  is  a disease  of  the  drier  seasons  is  fairly  well  corroborated 
by  the  diagrams. 

Various  writers  have  called  attention  to  the  greater  destruc- 
tiveness of  this  disease  on  the  lighter,  sandy  soils  as  compared 
with  the  damage  it  does  on  the  heavy  ones.  On  account  of  the 
very  generalized  nature  of  our  knowledge  of  this  subject,  the 
author  has  attempted  to  get  evidence  which  would  more  clearly 
show  the  influence  of  climatic  and  soil  factors  on  the  severity  of 
tlie  disease.  For  this  purpose  continuous  meteorological  records 
(air  humidity  and  temperature)  were  obtained  in  a standard 
Weathei*  Bureau  shelter  at  the  same  height  as  the  potato  vines 
for  the  seasons  of  1915  and  1916.  Soil  temperatures  among  the 
1‘oots  and  soil  moisture  determinations  were  obtained  only  for 
the  summer  of  1916.  The  light,  sandy  soil  on  which  the  experi- 
mental plot  was  located  both  seasons,  proved  ideal  for  such 
studies  on  account  of  the  more  decisive  response  of  the  plants  to 
changes  in  environmental  conditions.  Fortunately  for  this 
study  the  two  summers  represented  extremes  in  opposite  direc- 
tions from  the  normal  in  regard  to  the  conditions  favorable  for 
the  disease.  The  season  of  1915  was  characterized  by  much  wet, 
cloudy  weather  during  July  and  early  August  and  by  relatively 
high  temperatures.  The  remainder  of  August  and  the  first  week 
of  September  were  dry  and  clear,  and  normal  in  temperature. 
The  disease  was  first  noted  July  3 on  the  early  crop  planted 
April  25  to  May  10,  but  did  little  damage  prior  to  the  third  week 
in  July  when  the  plants  began  to  set  tubers.  From  this  time  on 
through  August  it  spread  with' great  rapidity  and  together  with 
tip-burn  resulted  in  an  estimated  loss  of  35  to  50  per  cent.  A 
heavy  frost  on  August  27  and  a subsequent  severe  attack  of  late 
])light  resulted  in  considerable  loss  to  the  late  crop,  which  had 
shown  but  little  early  blight. 

The  season  of  1916  began  with  a very  wet.  cold  June  with  ex- 
cessive rainfall  making  conditions  unfavorable  for  the  planting 
and  growth  of  the  crop.  The  first  ten  days  in  July  were  marked 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


37 


by  mild  favorable  weather  after  which  a period  of  dry  weather 
with  extremely  high  temperature  began  and  continued  -almost  un- 
broken throughout  tlie  summer  until  September  5.  Oh  twenty 
days  of  this  period  the  temperature  at  the  height  of  the  plants 
reached  or  exceeded  90  °F.,  and  on  fifteen  days  the  thermometer 
registered  100°F  or  more.  On  June  26,  spots  could  be  found  on 
occasional  lower  leaves  of  most  of  the  early  fields  examined  but 
the  vines  were  very  vigorous  and  were  just  beginning  to  flower. 
By  the  time  the  hot  weather  began,  the  second  week  in  July,  the 
disease  had  made  but  little  headway.  The  high  temperature  of 
air  and  soil  and  consequent  reduction  in  the  available  soil  mois- 
ture now  quickly  weakened  the  plants,  thus  making  ideal  condi- 
tions, so  far  as  host  susceptibility  was  concerned,  for  the  rapid 
spread  of  early  blight.  By  July  30,  the  vines  were  mostly  dead 
from  tip-burn  and  but  very  few  early  blight  spots  could  be 
found. 

The  late  crop,  planted  between  eTune  1-15,  escaped  very  large- 
ly the  severe  drought.  The  rainy  weather  of  September  and 
early  October,  however,  enabled  early  blight  to  spread  so  that 
30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  foliage  was  badly  diseased.  Tin's  injury, 
in  connection  with  two  light  frosts,  operating  on  the  already 
much  retarded  plants,  it  is  believed,  was  an  important  factor  in 
reducing  the  tuber  yield. 

The  meteorological  records  for  1915,  being  incomplete,  are  not 
given.  The  data  summarized  in  Figure  10^  cover,  therefore, 
only  the  season  of  1916.  "When  these  are  considered  in  connection 
with  the  spot  history  records  (Tables  ITT  and  IV),  made  during 
the  same  period,  there  is  evident  a very  close  correlation  between 
the  various  environmental  factors  and  the  occurrence  and  de- 
velopment of  early  blight.  The  evidence  shows,  (1)  that  in 
order  to  have  the  optimum  conditions  for  an  epidemic  there 
must  be  relatively  high  temperatures  in  combination  with  a more 
or  less  weakened  condition  of  the  plant  so  that  the  fungus  can 
make  its  greatest  spread;  (2)  that  such  development  will  not 
occur  unless  the  above  conditions  are  prefaced  by  relatively  moist 
periods  of  high  humidity  and  abundant  dew  or  rainy  weather 
when  spore  production  and  infection  can  readily  take  plac6.  The 
season  of  1915  represented  just  such  a (‘orrelation  of  condi- 
tions for  the  early  crop.  In  1916,  on  the  contrary,  no  such  opti- 
mum climatic  combination  prevailed,  so  that,  although  the 

*The  writer  is  indebted  to  Prof.  H "JV.  Rtpwart  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. who  determined  the  moisture  equivalents  from  which  the  hygroscopic 
coefficients  (approximate  nonavailahle  moisture)  were  calculated. 


38 


Eesearch  Bulletin  42 


plants  were  in  a most  susceptible  condition,  there  was  no  general 
occurrence  of  early  blight  until  late  autumn. 

These  studies  suggest  a possible  explanation  of  the  severity  of 
this  disease  in  some  countries  and  its  practical  absence  in  others. 
While  the  writer  has  had  no  opportunity  personally  to  observe 
it  in  other  countries  it  is  noteworthy,  according  to  reports  in 
literature,  that  the  organism  occurs  in  practically  all  important 
potato  growing  regions  of  the  world.  The  difference  in  destruc- 
tiveness, therefore,  must  be  due,  not  to  the  lack  of  introduction, 
but  to  a difference  in  climatic  conditions.  As  already  noted  it  is 
reported  more  severe  in  the  United  States,  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, and  South  Africa  than  in  Europe.  Conclusions  from  stud- 
ies in  Wisconsin  seem  to  indicate  the  following  interpretation: 
the  disease  is  more  destructive  in  the  first  countries  named  be- 
cause in  general  the  average  summer  temperatures  of  these  re- 
gions are  not  only  higher  but  probably  subject  to  greater  fluc- 
tuations and  extremes  which,  combined  with  variations  in  rain- 
fall, make  conditions  less  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
In  central  Europe,  on  the  contrary,  where  early  blight  as 
a serious  disease  is  practically  unknown,  the  moderately  low 
summer  temperatures  and  the  uniformally  distributed  rainfall 
furnish  highly  favorable  conditions  for  the  host  plant,  while 
less  favorable  for  the  best  development  of  the  parasite. 

Control  Measures 

RESISTANT  VARIETIES 

Stuart  (1914)  summarizes  the  results  of  five  years’  observa- 
tions of  the  relative  resistance  to  early  blight  of  153  American 
and  foreign  varieties  of  potatoes.  Four  of  the  ten  varieties 
found  most  resistant  to  early  blight  are  also  found  among  the 
ten  most  resistant  to  late  blight.  But  on©  of  the  ten  was  of 
American  origin  and  it  was  of  no  commercial  importance.  The 
European  varieties,  though  quite  resistant,  did  so  poorly  under 
our  climatic  and  soil  conditions  as  to  be  practically  worthless 
from  a commercial  standpoint.  He  concludes:  'Hhe  value  of 
the  disease  resistant  varieties  is  problematical  rather  than  ac- 
tual. The  plant  breeder,  by  mating  them  with  the  most  desir- 
able commercial  types,  may  develop  commercial  types  of  resis- 
tant varieties.”  Green  and  Waid  (1906)  of  the  Ohio  station. 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


39 


however,  believe  that  much  can  be  done  in  building  up  resistant 
varieties  by  selecting  seed  from  resistant  hills. 

The  McCormick  variety  is  said  by  Norton  (1906)  to  show  de- 
cided resistance  to  early  blight.  Prof.  T.  H.  White  of  the  Mary- 
land station  furnished  the  writer  with  seed  of  this  variety  which 
was  tried  out  in  1915  and  1916  in  Wisconsin.  The  unusually 
large  coarse  vines  showed  by  far  the  greatest  resistance  com- 
pared with  the  fifteen  other  varieties  grown.  However,  in  late 
September,  1915,  when  the  stage  of  greatest  vigor  had  passed, 
they  also  showed  20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  foliage  badly  diseased. 
The  poor  quality  of  the  tuber  will  probably  prevent  it  from  be- 
coming of  much  commercial  importance  where  more  desirable 
varieties  can  be  profitably  grown. 

SPRAYING 

The  early  spraying  trials  by  Jones,  aimed  particularly  at 
early  blight  (see  Jones  and  Morse  1905),  as  well  as  the  long  series 
of  potato  spraying  experiments  at  the  New  York  and  Connecti- 
cut stations,  have  shown  the  practical  control  of  this  disease  with 
bordeaux  mixture.  Lutman  (1911),  summarizing  the  twenty 
years’  spraying  in  Vermont,  states  that  three  to  four  applica- 
tions of  the  5-5-50  bordeaux  ‘‘efficiently  protects  the  plants 
from  the  attacks  of  the  early  and  of  the  late  blight.”  Milward 
(1909)  states  that  increased  yields  result  from  spraying  in  Wis- 
consin when  not  less  than  four  applications  are  given  and  the 
spraying  commenced  not  later  than  August  15. 

Stewart  (1914)  states  that  in  the  ten  year  series  at  Geneva 
there  was  an  average  increase  from  spraying  for  both  blights 
of  97.5  bu.  per  acre.  The  4^—50  formula  is  recommended  for 
the  first  two  applications  with  an  increase  to  6-4—50  in  the  late 
sprayings.  On  the  other  hand  Clinton  (1916)  obtained  an  aver- 
age increase  of  38  bushels  per  acre  in  Connecticut  with  three 
applications  of  the  4-4-50.  Additional  evidence  bearing  di- 
rectly on  the  control  of  early  blight  is  given  by  Jack  (1913  and 
1916)  for  Rhodesia  in  South  Africa.  There  early  blight  appears 
to  be  by  far  the  most  important  disease  of  the  potato.  Several 
years  results  showed  an  increase  in  yield,  due  to  spraying  with 
bordeaux  mixture,  ranging  from  16  to  57  per  cent. 

Wherever  this  disease  causes  practical  injury  on  the  tomato, 
spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  has  also  been  recommended. 


40 


Research  Bulletin  42 


Edgcrton  and  Moi'cland  (1913)  advise  one  application  in  the 
cold  frame  and  one  every  ten  days  thereafter  in  the  field  if  the 
disease  is  prevalent. 

The  spraying  experiments  conducted  by  the  writer  were  de- 
signed primarily  to  furnish  evidence  on  control  correlated  with 
his  life  history  studies  of  the  fungus,  and  secondarily  to  test  out 
under  Wisconsin  conditions  the  recommendations  of  workers  in 
other  states. 


SPRAYING  experiments  AT  WAUPACA 

The  season  of  1915  was  unusually  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  early  blight.  Spraying  was  done,  however,  only  on, the 
late  crop  which,  in  the  experimental  plot,  was  completely  killed 
by  frost  on  August  26  before  much  differentiation  between 
sprayed  and  unsprayed  was  noticed. 

In  1916  both  early  and  late  potatoes  were  sprayed,  but  unfor- 
tunately for  the  experiments  on  early  potatoes,  little  disease  oc- 
curred this  season.  In  spite  of  this  the  results  obtained  seem 
worthy  of  record.  On  the  late  crop,  planted  between  June  5 
and  15,  it  operated  in  weakening  the  already  much  retarded  vines 
and  was  undoubtedly  responsible  for  a large  part  of  the  short- 
age in  yield. 

On  early  potatoes — Experiments  were  undertaken  in  two 
gardens  which  had  grown  several  successive  crops  of  potatoes 
and  in  which  early  blight  had  been  noted  as  severe  in  1915. 
The  plots  were  sprayed  by  hand  with  a modified  Hudson  and 
Thurber  compressed  air  sprayer.  This  pump  proved  quite  satis- 
factory for  plots  of  small  size  and,  with  high  pressure,  gave  a 
very  fine  spray.  Great  care  was  taken  to  cover  all  leaves  thor- 
oughly with  the  mixture.  The  amount  applied  eacE  time  was  de- 
termined by  the  differences  in  gross  weight  of  the  container  be- 
fore and  after  spraying.  As  a rule  about  150  gallons  per  acre 
were  used  for  each  of  the  first  two  applications,  and  175  to  200 
gallons  per  acre  for  the  later  sprayings.  Since  earlj^  blight  was 
a negligible  factor  on  account  of  the  extreme  drought,  the  bene- 
ficial results  obtained  are  attributable  primarily  to  the  lessen- 
ing of  tip-burn  and  flea  Beetle  injury.  However,  it  is  note- 
worthy that,  whereas  a dozen  or  more  spots  developed  on  each 
control  plant  in  Plots  1 and  3 (Experiment  B),  only  rarely 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


41 


could  an  infection  be  found  on  Plot  2,  Avhich  received  weekly 
applications  (9  in  all),  beginning  Avhen  the  plants  were  6 inches 
high.  The  results  are  combined  in  Table  V. 

Table  V.— Spraying  Experiments  on  Early  Potatoes 


Experiment  A,  Van  Patten  Garden;  Six  Weeks  Variety 


Plot 

Treatnoeut 

Yield 

iNCBEASE 

i 

Actual  number  lbs. 

1 

Bu. 

per 

A. 

Large 

Small 

Total 

! Bu. 

Per 

cent 

1 

Bordeaux  5-5-aO 
June  16.  24;  July  1,  8. 
15,  and  29 

42.5 

i 15.0 

57.5 

87.0 

1 

! 

1 4.5 

5.2 

2 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

I 38.0 

11.0 

49.0 

; 82.5 



i _ 

3 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
J uly  1 and  15 

45.5 

8.5 

54.0 

90.8 

5.3 

5.8 

4 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

47.5 

7.5 

55.0 

84.4 

5 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
J uly  1 , 10,  and  29 

56.0 

11.0 

67.0 

107.6 

19.3 

17.9 

6 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

23.75 

3.75 

27.5 

88.3 

7 

Bordeaux  5-5-50  1 

July  8.  18,  and  28 

77.0 

i 

12.0 

89.0 

144.0 

38.8 

26.9 

8 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

55.5 

10.0 

‘ 65.5 

105.2 

i 

9 

Bordeaux  5 5-50 
June  24;  July  8 and  22 

53.0 

12.5 

65.5 

104.4 

17.1 

16.3 

10  Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

43.5 

12.5 

56.0 

87.3 

11 

Bordeaux  2-4-50 
June  24:  July  8 and  22 

43.5 

17.0 

60.5 

92.3 

-2.3 

-2.4 

12  Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

48.5 

15.5 

62.0 

94.6 

Experiment  B,  Taylor  Garden:  Elarly  Denver  Variety 


1 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

38 

27.5 

65.5 

112.2 

2 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
June  16.  24;  July  1,  8, 
15,  22,  29:  Aug.  5 and 
14 

1 29.5 

70.5 

120.7 

17.5 

14.5 

3 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

15.5 

12.0 

27.5 

94.2 

On  late  potatoes — In  experiments  A and  C (Table  VI)  the 
spraying  was  done  on  selected  rows  in  one  tenth  acre  plots  Avhich 
had  been  cropped  successively  to  potatoes  for  several  years. 
These  were  sprayed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  early  potatoes. 
The  other  trials  were  carried  out  on  various  farms  near  Wau- 


42 


Research  Bulletin  42 


paca,  where  the  fields  had  been  subjected  to  a four  year  rota- 
tion. Here  an  upright  barrel  outfit  on  a cart  was  employed. 

Though  much  retarded  in  development  the  late  potatoes  es- 
caped to  a large  extent  the  severe  drought  during  July  and  Au- 
gust. Revived  by  the  heavy  rains  in  September  they  made 
good  growth,  and,  had  frost  held  off  until  late  October,  a fair 
yield  could  have  been  obtained.  The  entire  plot  in  Experiment 
A was  heavily  watered  with  a hose  several  times  during  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  which  fact  accounts  partly  for  the  greater 
amount  of  disease  and  the  consequent  greater  difference  in  yield 
as  compared  with  the  other  experiments.  This  plot  also  received 
the  greater  number  of  sprayings.  Prior  to  September  13,  early 
blight  was  practically  absent  in  any  of  the  fields  except  Experi- 
ment A.  The  rains  and  favorable  weather  following  this  date 
permitted  rapid  spread  of  the  disease  on  the  already  weakened 
plants.  Thus  during  a month  of  favorable  growing  weather  for 
the  plants  a good  portion  of  the  leaf  area  in  most  cases  became 
badly  diseased.  Flea  beetles  and  tip-burn  were  practically  ab- 
sent and  no  late  blight  was  found.  In  all  these  experiments 
those  rows  which  received  two  or  more  applications  of  the  5-5-50 
Bordeaux  contained  in  every  case  larger  and  more  vigorous 
plants  even  before  any  disease  occurred.  This  seemed  to  be  due 
entirely  to  the  stimulative  action'of  the  spray.  The  disease  was 
not  absolutely  controlled  in  any  case,  not  even  plot  1 of  Experi- 
ment A,  which  received  7 applications.  Several  light  frosts  in 
September  complicated  the  situation  in  Experiment  B where 
the  sprayed  plants  on  this  sandy  type  of  soil  showed  a striking 
resistance  to  frost  injury.  Aside  from  this,  however,  the  uni- 
form and  consistent  increase  from  the  spraying  is  attributable 
to  but  two  factors,  viz.,  (1)  the  practical  control  of  early  blight 
and  (2)  the  stimulative  action  of  the  bordeaux  mixture  on  the 
plants.  The  results  are  presented  in  summary  form  in  Table  VI. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  SPRAYING 

Wliile  the  period  during  which  the  foregoing  experiments 
were  conducted  was  not  typical  of  the  average  year  in  many  re- 
spects, yet  the  intensive  study  made  of  the  disease  in  connection 
with  them  seems  to  warrant  the  following  deductions: 

For  the  early  crop  under  Wisconsin  conditions  the  disease 
can  be  profitably  controlled  by  four  to  six  applications  of  the 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants  43 
Tablk  VI. — Spraying  Expeuimknts  on  Late  Potatoes 


Experiment  A,  Tnrrell  Held;  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2 


Plot 

Treatment 

Yield 

Increase 

Actual  Numiier  lbs, 

Bus. 
1 per 

! 

Large 

Small 

1 Total 

Bus.  i 
1 

Per 

cent 

■ 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
June  28;  .Tulv  8,  18.  28: 
Aug.  7,  17;  Sept.  6 

123.0 

10.5 

133.5 

1 

i 

I 331.9 

1 

144.2 

43.4 

2 Conirol 

Paris  green  and  lime 

60.5 

15.0 

75.5 

187.7 

3 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
June  28;  Julv  12,  26; 
Aug.  9,  24;  Sept.  6 

107.0 

16.0 

123.5 

j 301.4 

! 

113.7 

37.7 

Experiment  B,  Constance  field;  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2 


1 

1 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Aug.  12;  Sept.  7 

188.0 

35.0 

223.0 

j 111.5 

23.0 

20.6 

2 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

149.0 

28.0 

177.0 

1 88.5 

3 

Bordeaux  5 5-50 
Aug.  12,  22:  Sept.  7 

190  0 

31.0 

221.0 

110.5 

22.0 

19.9 

4 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

133.0 

27.0 

160.0 

80.0 

5 

B >rdeau  x 5-5-50 
Aug  12,  22 

167  0 

35.0 

202.0 

1 101.0 

21.0 

20.8 

6 ('o.itrol 

i Paris  green  and  lime 

133.0 

26.0 

159.0 

1 79.0 

7 

1 Bordeaux  5-5-50 
j Aug.  12,  22;  Sept.  7 

163.0 

1 38.0 

1 

201.0 

100.5 

21.5 

21  4 

8 Control 

j Pari  ^ green  and  lime 

140.0 

24.0 

164.0 

82.0 

9 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
! Aug.  12;  Sept.  7 

149.0 

i 

34.0 

183.0 

91.5 

9.5 

10.4 

10 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Aug.  12,  22;  Sept.  7 

152.0 

31.0 

183.0 

91.5 

9.5 

10.4 

Experiment  C,  Taylor  field;  Rural  New  Yorker  No#  2 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
July  8,  22:  Aug.  5,  17; 
Sept.  13  1 

83.0 

18.9 

104.9 

190.5  i 

74.7 

39.2 

2 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

46.9 

16.9 

63.8 

115.8  1 

3 

Bordeaux  2-4-50 
July  8,  22;  Aug.  5,  17; 
Sept.  13 

38.5 

18.1 

56.6 

102.7 

18.5 

18.0 

4 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime  j 

28.3 

18.1 

46.4 

84.2 

Experiment  D,  Pinkerton  field; 

Rural 

iNew  Yorker  No.  2 

1 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Aug.  12:  Sept.  7 

250.5 

95.0 

345.5 

93.9 

13.9 

13.7 

2 C )ntrol 

Paris  green  and  lime 

198.5 

98.0 

296.5 

80.0 

3 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Aug.  22;  Sept.  7 

299.5 

81.0 

380.5 

103.4 

27.7 

26.7 

4 Control 

Paris  green  and  lime 

197.0 

66.0 

263.0 

71.5 

5 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Aug.  22;  Sept.  7 

229  5 

80.5 

310.0 

84.3 

8.6 

10.2 

44 


Research  Bih.letin  42 


standard  5—5—5  0 bordeaux  mixture.  Complete  control  can 
only  be  attained  by  weekly  sprayings  begun  when  the  plants 
are  six  to  eight  inches  high  and  continued  through  the  remain- 
ing period  of  growth. 

For  the  late  crop,  the  results  indicate  that  the  three  to  four 
applications  ordinarily  recommended  for  the  control  of  late 
blight  will  also  largely  control  early  blight. 

Tnoi'ouglmess  of  application  cannot  be  overemphasized!  in 
spraying  for  early  blight. 

SANITATION 

From  the  evidence  already  presented  that  primary  infection 
results  from  spores  overwintering  in  the  soil,*  and  from  observa- 
tional data  on  the  persistence  of  the  fungus  in  dead  vines,  it  is 
clear  that  in  certain  cases  sanitation  becomes  an  important  factor 
to  be  considered.  Crop  rotation  is  of  course  the  rational  measure 
and  in  those  cases  where  it  is  desired  to  crop  the  land  continu- 
ously to  potatoes,  all  dead  vines  should  be  raked  together  and 
burned  immediately  after  harvest.  Such  measures  will  tend  to 
reduce  the  number  of  primary  infections  but  they  should  be  re- 
garded merely  as  contributing  to  the  success  of  the  more  certain 
method  of  control,  viz.,  spraying. 

Summary 

Early  blight,  Alfernaria  solani  (E.  & M.)  J.  & G.,  of  potato' 
and  related  plants  is  a characteristic  leaf  spot  disease  distin- 
guished by  the  concentric  markings  or  ‘Garget-board”  appear- 
ance of  the  spot. 

This  disease  is  practically  world  wide  being  found  wherever 
the  potato  is  an  important  crop,  but  it  is  of  economic  importance 
in  but  few  countries,  especially  the  United  States,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa. 

The  damage  from  this  disease  is  indirect,  i.  e.,  it  causes  the 
premature  death  of  the  foliage  and  this  results  in  decreased 
yields.  During  some  years  early  blight  does  more  damage  than 
. late  blight  but  it  is  the  annual  small  loss  which  makes  it  a seri- 
ous obstacle  to  successful  potato  culture.  On  the  tomato,  where 
it  causes  spotting  of  both  leaves  and  fruit,  Edgerton  and  More- 
land, 1913,  place  it  next  to  wilt  in  importance. 

Early  blight,  in  Wisconsin,  occurs  commonly  on  potato,  to- 
mato and  eggplant.  The  identity  of  the  fungus  on  these  hosts 
has  been  established  by  morphological  and  cultural  studies  and 
by  reciprocal  cross  inoculations  from  single  spore  cultures.  The 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


45 


leaf  spot  of  Jimsoii  weed  (Datura)  which  has  been  widely  attri- 
buted to  the  same  fungus,  is  shown  to  be  due  to  a similar  but  dis- 
tinct species  of  Alternaria  which  was  early  described  by  Saccardo 
as  Cercospora  crassa.  For  this  the  author  has  given  the  new  com- 
bination Alternaria  crassa. 

To  determine  the  host  range  of  the  fungus,  inoculations  were 
made  under  field  conditions  on  30  species  and  varieties  of  the 
family  Solanaceae.  On  29  of  these  penetration  and  incipient 
infection  occurred.  However,  the  fungus  was  able  to  complete 
its  life  cycle  on  but  12  of  the  plants,  Avhich  in  addition  to  two 
others  not  included  in  the  tests,  make  its  known  host  range  14 
species  and  varieties  representing  the  genera  Solanum,  Lycoper- 
sicon,  Nicandra,  and  Hyocyamus, 

The  early  blight  fungus  was  first  described  in  1882  and 
named  Macrosporium  solani  Ellis  and  Hartin.  Jones  and 
Grouty  1896,  and  Sorauer,  1896,  changed  the  name  (the  latter 
on  insufficient  evidence)  to  Alternari  solani.  Though  the  writer 
has  never  observed  conidia  in  chains  in  nature  and  they  occur 
but  rarely  in  culture,  the  present  uncertain  taxonomic  relation- 
ship of  the  two  genera.  Alternaria  and  Macrosporium,  and  the 
established  usage  leads  him  to  provisionally  retain  the  latter  bi- 
nominal, Alternaria  solani  (E.  & M.)  J.  and  G. 

The  important  diagnostic  characteristic  of  the  fungus  is  the 
long,  single  or  forked,  terminal  beak  of  the  conidium. 

On  potato  and  other  vegetable  and  fruit  extract  agar,  the  col- 
ony produces  a brilliant  yellow  pigmentation  of  the  medium, 
later  becoming  reddish. 

After  repeated  trials  to  obtain  spores  in  culture,  it  was  found 
that  by  stirring  or  shredding  the  agar  and  mycelium  in  the 
petri  dish  and  carefully  regulating  the  moisture  for  24  hours 
abundant  sporulation  could  be  secured.  This  served  as  the 
source  of  material  for  spore  germination  and  inoculation  studies. 

The  cardinal  temperatures  for  spore  germination  and  mycelial 
growth  on  favorable  media  fall  within  the  following  limits: 
minimum  1-3°,  maximum  37-45°,  optimum  26-28°G.  Five  to 
ten  germ  tubes  emerge  at  the  optimum  while  at  the  minimum 
usually  not  more  than  half  this  number  develop. 

Spore  production  in  nature  may  begin  when  the  spot  has 
reached  a diameter  of  3 to  4 millimeters.  A given  spot  may  pro- 
duce 1500  to  3000  spores  in  two  to  three  successive  crops  during 
a season. 


46 


Research  Bulletin  42 


The  conidia  are  readily  dislodged  from  their  conidiophoreSy 
and  local  dissemination  appears  to  be  chiefly  effected  by  wind, 
and  rain.  Colorado  potato  beetles  may  also  spread  the  disease. 

Infection  may  occur  via  the  stomates  or  directly  through  the 
cuticle. 

The  period  of  incubation  varies  from  48  to  72  hours. 

Primary  infection  may  result  from  overwintered  conidia  or 
possibly  from  new  conidia  produced  by  overwintered  mycelium. 

Though  conidia  were  found  to  overwinter  on  leaves  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  the  proportion  surviving  the  winter  was 
greater  on  those  buried  at  2,  4^  and  8 inch  depths. 

Early  blight  ordinarily  makes  little  development  until  the  host 
has  passed  its  period  of  greatest  vigor  and  is  being  weakened  by 
external  conditions  or  by  the  drain  of  tuber  formation.  Opti- 
mum spore  production  is  dependent  upon  frequent  rains  aided, 
by  heavy  dews.  Climate  and  soil  exert  a controlling  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  disease.  In  general  it  becomes 
most  serious  when  the  season  begins  with  abundant  moisture 
which  is  followed  by  high  temperatures  unfavorable  to  the  host 
plant  but  with  sufficient  moisture  to  insure  maximum  sporula- 
tion.  Periods  of  continued  drought  check  its  spread  completely. 
The  conclusion  is,  therefore,'  reached  that  the  optimum  condi- 
tions for  an  epidemic  of  early  blight  require  relatively  high 
temperatures  alternating  with  moist  periods  in  combination 
with  a more  or  less  weakened  condition  of  the  plant. 

The  unusual  resistance  of  the  McCormick  potato  to  early 
blight,  reported  by  Norton,  1906,-  has  also  been  observed  by  the 
writer,  but  unfortunately  this  variety  is  a poor  commercial 
type.  The  possibility  of  securing  resistant  varieties  with  the  best 
commercial  qualities  has  been  shown  by  Stuart,  1914,  to  offer 
little  immediate  encouragement,  but  he  is  continuing  breeding 
experiments  with  this  in  mind. 

Sanitary  measures  are  recommended  based  on  the  evidence  as 
to  tlic  overwintering  and  origin  of  primary  infections.  These  in- 
clude crop  rotation  and  the  destruction  of  the  dead  potato  tops 
in  gardens  where  continuous  cropping  is  practised. 

Spraying  ex]ieriments  conducted  by  the  writer  confirm  the 
results  of  others  and  show  that  timely  and  thorough  spraying 
with  home  made  bordeaux  mixture  profitably  controls  early 
blight.  (See  summarized  recommendations  for  spraying,  p.  42). 


Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 


47 


Literature  Cited 


Bartram,  H.  E.  ^ , 

1916  of  natural  Ioav  temperature  on  certain  fungi  and  bac- 

teria. U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  5:651-655. 

Chester,  F.  D. 

1893  Diseases  of  the  round  potato  and  their  treatment.  Del. 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  5(1892) : 67-70. 

Clinton,  G.  P. 

1904  Diseases  of  plants  cultivated  in  Connecticut.  Conn.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1903:320,  349,  365. 


1916  Potato  spraying  experiments,  third  report.  Conn.  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Kept.  1915:470-480. 

Coons,  G.  H. 

1914  Potato  diseases  of  Michigan.  Mich.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Special 
Bui.  66:31. 

Duggar,  B.  M. 

1909  Fungous  diseases  of  plants,  pp.  301-304. 

Edgerton,  C.  W.  and  Moreland,  C.  C. 

1913  Diseases  of  the  tomato  in  Louisiana.  La.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  142:23. 

Ellis,  J.  B.  and  Martin,  G.  B. 

1882  Macrosporium  solani  E.  & M.  Am.  Nat.  16:1003. 

Farlow,  W.  G. 

1905  Bibliographical  index  of  North  American  fungi.  1,  part 
1:183-185. 

Ferraris,  T. 

1913  I Parassiti  Vegetali  delle  Plante  coltivate  od  utili.  pp.  892-8£3 
Galloway,  B.  T. 

1891  The  new  potato  disease.  Garden  and  field,  Adelaide,  Au- 
stralia 16:158. 


1893  The  Macrosporium  potato  disease.  Agri.  Sci.  7:370-382  and 
Soc.  for  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.  Proc.  14:46-58. 

Green,  W.  J.  and  Waid,  C.  W. 

1906  The  early  and  late  blight  of  potatoes  and  how  to  control 
them.  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  58:4. 

Jack,  R.  W. 

1913  Potato  spraying  experiments  for  the  control  of  early  blight 
(Alternaria  solani).  Rhodesia  Agr.  Jour.  16:852-862. 


1916  Does  it  pay  to  spray  potatoes  in  Rhodesia?  Rhodesia  Agr. 
Jour.  13:354-360. 

Jones.  L.  R. 

1893  The  new  potato  disease  or  early  blight.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.. 
Rept.  6(1892) : 66-70. 


1895  Various  forms  of  potato  blight.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
49:91-96.  (Distributed  1896.) 


1896  Various  forms  of  potato  blight  and  their  causes;  studies 
upon  Macrosporium  solani  E.  & M.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Rept.  9(1895) : 72-88. 


1897  Potato  diseases  and  remedies.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Rept. 
10:  (1896) : 44-53. 


48 


Research  Bulletin  42 


Jones,  L.  R. 

1903  Diseases  of  the  potato  in  relation  to  its  development.  Mass. 
Hort.  Soc.  Trans.  1903:150. 


1912  Potato  diseases  in  Wisconsin  and  their  control.  Wis.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  36:10. 

, and  Grout,  A.  J. 

1897  Notes  on  two  species  of  Alternaria.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  Bui, 
24:254-258. 

, and  Morse,  W.  J. 

1905  Potato  diseases  and  their  remedies.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Kept.  18(1504-05)  : 272-277. 

Lutman,  B.  F. 

1911  Twenty  years’  spraying  for  potato  diseases.  Potato  diseases 
and  the  weather.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  159:225-296. 

McAlpine,  D. 

1903  Early  blight  of  the  potato.  Dept.  Agr.  Victoria  Jour. 
2(  1903)  : 464-467. 


1911 ' Handbook  of  fungous  diseases  of  the  potato  in  Australia  and 
their  treatment.  Melbourne  Dept.  Agr.  Victoria,  pp.  56-59. 
McCubbin,  W.  A. 

1916  Tomato  black  spot  or  black  rot.  Canada  Exp’l.  Farms.  Repi. 

1915  (vol.  2)  : 987-988. 

Massee,  G. 

1906  Perpetuation  of  potato  rot  and  leaf  curl.  Roy.  Bot.  Gard. 
Kew.  Bui.  misc.  inform.  4:11-112. 

Milward,  J.  G. 

1909  Directions  for  spraying  potatoes.  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir. 
of  Information  3. 

Norton,  J.  B.  S. 

1906  Irish  potato  diseases.  Md.  Agr.  .Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  108:63-72. 
Ntisslin,  0. 

1905  Potato  leaf  curl  {Macrosporiuin  solani).  Board  of  Agr.  of 
Great  Britain.  Jour,  12:476-478. 

Rands,  R.  D. 

1917  The  production  of  spores  of  Alternaria  solani  in  pure  cul- 

tures. Phytopath.  7:316-317. 


1917  Alternaria  on  potato  and  Datura.  Phytopath.  7:327-337. 

Rolfs,  P.  H. 

1898  Diseases  of  the  tomato.  Fla.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  47:124-127, 
Sorauer,  P. 

1896  Auftreten  einer  dem  amerikanischen  “Early  blight”  ent- 
sprechenden  Krankheit  an  den  deutschen  Kaitcffeln.  Ztschi. 
Pflanzenkrank.  (>:l-9. 

Stewart,  F.  C. 

1914  Potato  spraying  experiments  at  Rush  in  1913. N,  Y.  (Gen. 
eva)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  379:3-9. 

Stuart,  Wm. 

1914  Disease  resistance  of  potatoes.  Vt.  Agr.  Exp,  Sta.  Bui. 
179:147-183. 

Tubeuf,  K.  F.  von  : 

1904  Die  Blattfleckenkrankheit  der  Kartoffel  (Early  blight  Oder  ^ 
Leaf-spot  disease)  in  Amerika.  Naturw.  Ztschr.  Land- 
u.  Forstw.  2:264-269.  £ 


Research  Bulletin  43  January,  1919 


The  Milling  and  Baking  Qualities  of 
Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 

B.  D.  LEITH 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction  3 

Important  factors  which  determine  milling  and  baking  qualities  of 

wheat  4 

A review  of  the  literature  on  milling  and  baking  tests  of  hard 

winter  wheats  6 

Method  of  procedure  7 

Milling  and  baking  tests  to  determine  the  desirable  varieties 8 

A comparison  of  the  five  best  pedigree  winter  wheats  carried 

through  three  years’  tests  of  1911,  1912,  1913 9 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  winter  wheat  grown  on  different  types 

of  soil  in  1914. 10 

Comparisons  in  loaf  volume  in  cubic  inches  from  the  baking  tests 

of  1915,  1916,  1917 11 

Comparisons  in  fiour  yield  from  the  milling  tests  of  1915,  1916,  1917  12 
Comparisons  in  the  percentage  of  gluten  from  the  tests  of  1913, 

1914,  1915,  1916,  1917  13 

Yield  per  acre  in  bushels  of  varieties  given  the  milling  and  bak- 
ing tests  for  the  years  1914,  1915,  1916,  1917 13 

Comparisons  of  the  two  pure  lines  recommended — Pedigree  No.  2 

and  Pedigree  No.  408  15 

Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 compared  with  Wisconsin-grown  Marquis  16 
Comparison  of  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  i2  with  the  average  Northern 

Spring  wheats  tested  by  the  Howard  Laboratories 17 

Cumulative  effect  of  climate  upon  quality  17 

Milling  and  baking  quality  of  the  yellow  berry  in  hard  winter 

wheat  20 

Review  of  literature  21 

Study  of  possible  causes  ' 22 

Percentages  of  yellow  berry  in  the  crops  of  different  years 22 

Inheritance  of  hard  berry  in  a pure  line  of  winter  wheat 23 

Protein  determination  of  yellow  berries  and  hard  berries 24 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  yellow  berry  and  hard  berries....  25 
Variation  between  two  pure  lines  from  the  same  stock  in  milling 

and  baking  quality  27 

Summary  29 


APPENDIX. 

Description  of  the  wheats  on  which  milling  and  baking  tests  were 

made  30 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1911  crop 32 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1912  crop 32 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1913  crop 33 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1914  crop 34 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1915  crop 35 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1916  crop 36 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  the  1917  crop 38 


The  Milling  and  Baking  Qualities  of 
Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 

In  the  pioneer  days  of  Wisconsin,  wheat  was  the  most  im- 
portant CTop  grown.  The  climate  was  favorable,  settlers  had 
emigrated  largely  from  wheat  growing  regions,  the  yields  were 
uniformly  high  and  the  quality  was  considered  excellent.  Wis- 
consin’s fame  as  a wheat  state  spread  and  in  the  early  Sixties 
she  was  one  of  the  leading  wheat  states  of  the  Union. 

The  varieties  were  all  soft,  such  being  considered  the  best 
milling  wheats  in  the  days  of  stone  milling.  However,  with 
the  advent  of  the  roller  milling  process  in  the  Seventies,  the  hard 
spring  wheats  replaced  the  soft  wheats  in  desirability  for  milling 
purposes.  About  this  time  the  hard  winter  wheat  was  intro- 
duced from  Russia  but  it  was  slow  in  gaining  favor.  It  was  not 
considered  the  equal  of  the  hard  springs  in  milling  quality,  and 
when  taken  to  regions  where  there  was  considerable  moisture 
during  the  growing  season  it  seemed  to  soften  appreciably.  How- 
ever, winter'  hardness  and  high  yields  were  so  outstanding  in 
these  Turkey  Red  wheats  that  they  continued  to  be  grown. 

In  Wisconsin  three  climatic  wheat  areas  overlap — the  hard 
spring,  the  hard  winter  and  the  semi-hard  winter.  At  first 
glance  this  would  indicate  a peculiarly  favorable  location  where- 
in varieties  could  be  chosen  from  all  of  the  three  groups.  How- 
ever, the  opposite  is  true.  As  wheat  is  very  sensitive  to  its  en- 
vironment, only  a limited  number  of  varieties  which  have  the 
power  of  rather  wide  adaptation  can  be  expected  to  produce  the 
best  results  under  such  conditions. 

Semi-hard  winter  wheats  thrive  in  Wisconsin  but  the  bread- 
making quality  of  these  wheats  is  decidedly  inferior  to  the  hard 
winters  and  the  hard  springs.  The  hard  winters  seem  to  offer 
the  best  field  for  practical  research.  While  the  general  tend- 
ency is  for  these  wheats  to  become  starchy  when  grown  in  this 
state  yet  some  strains  are  decidedly  superior  to  others  in  their 
ability  to  remain  hard.  The  problem,  therefore,  is  to  determine 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


the  most  desirable  varieties  from  the  standpoint  of  yield  and 
quality  and  to  discover  as  far  as  possible  what  fluctuations  in 
(piality  may  be  expected  of  varieties  when  grown  in  this  state. 

Important  Factors  Which  Determine  Milling  and  Baking 
Qualities  of  Wheat 

Flour  yield  and  color.  From  the  milling  standpoint  the 
important  items  are  flour  yield  and  flour  color. 

The  desideratum  is  a high  percentage  of  flour  of  white  color 
with  a faint  creaminess.  Yield  is  the  quantitative  factor  and 
shows  the  miller  the  amount  of  the  most  valuable  mill  product 
he  can  expect  from  the  wheat.  The  color  is  the  qualitative  fac- 
tor which  largely  determines  the  grade  of  the  flour. 

Loaf  volume.  The  volume  of  the  loaf  as  determined  by  the 
baking  test  is  the  most  important  and  most  easily  recognizable 
factor  which  determines  flour  values  for  bread  making.  It  in- 
dicates the  ability  of  the  flour  to  expand,  to  hold  up  well,  and  to 
give  a light,  well-piled  loaf. 

Texture  of  loaf.  As  volume  of  loaf  is  the  quantitative  fac- 
tor, so  texture  of  loaf  is  the  qualitative  factor  which  is  deter- 
mined by  the  baking  test.  It  is  more  difficult  to  express  readily 
because  it  entails  such  items  as  uniformity,  number  and  evenness 
of  distribution  of  cavities,  and  thinness  and  transparency  of  the 
walls  between  the  cavities. 

Water  absorption.  The  same  amount  of  ingredients,  except 
water,  is  used  in  each  case  in  mixing  the  dough  for  the  baking 
test.  Enough  water  is  added  to  make  the  proper  consistency. 
This  added  water  is  taken  as  the  measure  of  the  absorption  power 
of  the  flour.  The  weight  of  the  loaf  as  it  comes  from  the  oven 
shows  its  ability  to  hold  the  absorbed  water.  High  water  ab- 
sorption and  retention  after  baking  makes  a good  bread  yield 
to  the  barrel  of  flour. 

Gluten.  The  amount  of  gluten  is  often  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  flour  strength,  but  only  within  rather  wide  limits 
can  this  be  used.  The  quality  of  gluten,  however,  is  a very  im- 
portant factor,  because  'without  an  elastic,  rubbery,  more  or  less 
tough  gliiten,  proper  expansion  will  not  result.  The  distinctions 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats  . r> 

between  different  glutens  that  can  be  noted  by  working  them  out 
by  hand  are  difficult  to  express  and  written  comparisons  are 
rather  indefinite. 

A Review  of  the  Literature  on  Milling  and  Baking  Tests 
OF  Hard  Winter  Wheats 

Milling  and  baking  tests  of  wheat  have  lieen  made  by  nearly 
all  stations  in  states  where  wheat  growing  is  important.  As  cli- 
matic conditions  seem  to  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  kind 
and  quality  of  wheat  grown  in  the  different  wheat  growing 
regions,  each  section  ha  sits  own  peculiar  wheat  problems. 

A brief  review  of  some  of  the  literature  is  given  here  to  show 
the  results  of  some  tests  of  Turkey  Red  wheats  when  grown  out- 
side of  the  regions  best  adapted  to  them. 

Zavitz^  mentions  the  Crimean  Red  and  Kharkov,  evidently 
two  types  of  the  Turkey  wheats,  as  making  a very  favorable 
showing  in  a five-year-average  yield  test.  In  bread  production, 
only  the  Crimean  Red  is  mentioned  as  having  superior  qualities. 

Williams  and  AVelton^  in  a test  of  41  varieties  of  wheats  in 
1909  find  the  Turkey  Red  lowest  in  flour  yield  and  very  mediocre 
in  loaf  volume. 

Ladd  and  Bailey^  report  tests  made  in  1908  of  Turkey  wheat 
grown  in  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  and  Montana, 
and  comparisons  are  made  with  the  hard  red  winter  wheats 
grown  south  of  the  forty-second  parallel.  The  sample  grown  in 
North  Dakota  gave  the  lowest  percentage  of  flour,  water  absorp- 
tion, loaf  volume,  and  color.  The  average  of  the  samples  grown 
south  of  the  forty-second  meridian  was  higher  than  those  grown 
in  the  above-mentioned  states  in  total  flour,  volume  of  loaf,  color 
of  loaf  and  crude  protein.  The  water  absorption  was  about  the 
same. 

A series  of  tests  made  in  1909  shows  the  '^hard  winter  wheats 
grown  in  the  Northwestern  states  to  have  been  inferior  to  the 
average  wheat  of  this  class  in  point  of  baking  quality,  although 
the  average  yield  of  straight  flour  was  very  good.”  However, 
one  sample  groA^^l  in  South  Dakota  was  appreciably  higher  than 
the  others  in  volume  of  loaf,  water  used,  and  percentage  of  pro- 


1 Ontario  Bui.  228. 

2 Ohio  Bui.  231. 

3 North  Dakota  Bui.  89. 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


tein,  arid  was  far  above  the  average  of  all  hard  winter  wheats. 
“Environment,  including  soil  and  climatic  conditions  is  prin- 
cipally responsible  for  the  variations  in  quality.” 

Thomas,^  in  comparing  classes  of  wheats  for  milling  and  bak- 
ing qualities,  shows  that  the  hard  red  vdnter  wheats  compare 
very  favorably  on  the  whole  with  the  hard  red  springs.  ‘ ' Over 
90  per  cent  of  the  samples  of  soft  red  winter  and  hard  red  spring 
wheat  yielded  between  65  and  75  per  cent  of  straight  flour.  The 
hard  red  winter  samples  ranged  somewhat  higher,  as  over  90 
per  cent  yielded  between  67  and  77  per  cent  of  straight  flour. 
In  average  flour  yield  hard  red  winter  wheat  is  about  2 per  cent 
higher  than  the  other  classes.” 

In  color  of  flour  there  was  a little  higher  percentage  creamy 
color  in  the  hard  red  winter  varieties  than  in  the  hard  red 
springs.  The  range  of  color  was  about  the  same. 

In  loaf  volume  the  ordinary  range  of  the  hard  red  winter 
wheats  was  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  the  hard  red  springs. 
To  quote : ' ' The  ordinary  range  for  hard  red  winter  Avas  from 
2000  to  2500  cc.  and  for  the  hard  red  spring  wheat  2100  to  2700 
per  340  grams  of  flour.  The  extreme  ranges  in  loaf  volume  as 
indicated  by  maximum  and  minimum  are  1810  to  2755  ec.  for 
the  hard  red  winter  and  1875  to  3260  cc.  for  the  hard  red  spring 
wheat.  The  figures  show  great  variation  which  is  the  result  of 
growing  these  wheats  under  a Avide  range  of  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate.  In  a general  Avay  the  data  gathered  from  year 
to  year  indicate  that  unfavorable  climatic  conditions  during 
the  later  part  of  the  growing  season  tend  to  produce  the  strong- 
est wheats.” 

In  texture  the  comparison  betAveen  the  hard  red  Avinter  and 
hard  red  spring  Avas  closer  than  in  loaf  volume. 

In  Avater  absorption  the  hard  red  AAunter  averages  slightly 
loAver  than  the  hard  red  sj)ring  Avheats. 

The  range  of  Amriation  in  the  tests  reported  sIioaa^s  a Avide 
difference  belAveen  samples.  A rather  small  percentage  of  the 
hard  red  Avinters  rank  very  high  in  all  tests,  far  above  the  a.A^er- 
age  of  the  hard  rod  springs.  In  flour  yield  and  color  a fcAA' 
of  the  A^ery  highest  hard  red  Avinters  rank  Avith  the  foAV  highest 
of  the  hard  red  springs. 


1 V.  S.  T)('])t.  Agr.  Bill.  Tm?. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


7 


A review  of  the  results  of  the  experiments  on  Turkey  Red 
wheats  indicates  two  things : 

1.  They  are  susceptible  to  climatic  changes  and  do  not  give 

best  results  when  grown  outside  of  the  dry,  warm  cli- 
mates. 

2.  The  wide  variation  shown  between  samples  in  the  milling 

and  baking  tests  suggests  a dilference  in  the  inherited 
qualities  which  make  good  bread  wheats. 

Method  of  Procedure 

In  1911,  when  the  writer  began  the  study  of  wheat  improve- 
ment at  the  Wisconsin  station  at  Madison,  several  very  good 
yielding  strains  of  winter  wheat  had  been  pedigreed.  Several 
spring  wheat  strains  were  introduced  about  this  time  from  Min- 
nesota and  Dakota. 

To  select  the  most  desirable  strains,  milling  and  baking  tests 
were  made  to  determine  quality  iu  addition  to  the  usual  study 
of  field  performance.  After  a two-year  test  several  eliminations 
were  made.  New  introductions  of  several  excellent  hard  winter 
wheats  were  made  in  1911  from  Kansas  and  from  some  of  the 
best  yielders  of  Ontario.  Later  seven  of  the  most  popular 
wheats  were  introduced  from  the  Purdue  station.  These  were 
semi-hard  varieties  and  only  a limited  number  of  such  wheats 
were  given  a milling  and  baking  test. 

The  main  line  of  effort  in  the  milling  and  baking  studies  was 
centered  on  the  hard  winter  wheats  to  see  if  some  strains  could 
be  found  which  would  overcome  the  objections  to  hard  wheat 
grown  in  Wisconsin.  Some  spring  wheats  were  included  in 
these  tests,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  spring  wheat 
yields  were  so  low  that  they  would  not  be  able  to  compete  equally 
with  winter  wheats.  However,  the  Marquis,  the  best  yielder 
among  the  springs,  was  continued  throughout  the  series  of  tests 
as  a basis  for  comparison.  The  semi-hard  and  soft  varieties 
were  also  entered  primarily  for  comparison. 

Owing  to  the  cost  of  milling  and  baking  many  of  the  poor 
yielders  were  discarded  without  this  additional  test.  As  other 
varieties  appear  only  once  or  twice  in  the  reports,  a considerable 
portion  of  the  work  is  discontinuous. 

Another  change  in  the  original  plan  was  made  when  it  be- 


8 


Wisconsin  Rkseakch  L>uLiiETi*N  43 


came  evident  that  j^ood  milling  wheat  could  be  raised  in  Wis- 
consin. The  work  was  then  broadened  to  include  other  related 
studies  having  a bearing  on  quality. 

Four  lines  of  investigation  are  presented: 

].  To  determine  l)v  milling  and  baking  tests  the  desii’able 
varieties. 

2.  To  determine  how  well  hard  winter  wheat  will  maintain 

its  milling  and  baking  cpialities  when  grown  continu- 
ously in  Wisconsin. 

3.  To  determine  if  heritable  variations  in  quality  between 

pure  lines  are  great  enough  to  have  pi’actical  signifi- 
cance. 

4.  To  detei’inine  how  deleterious  from  the  milling  and  bak- 

ing standpoint,  the  yellow  beri’y  is  in  hard  winter 
wheats. 

The  Howard  Wheat  and  Flour  Testing  I^aboratory  of  Min- 
neapolis made  all  the  milling  and  baking  tests  with  the  exception 
of  one  year.  Tn  1914,  the  Bay  State  Milling  Fompany  of  Wi- 
nona, Minnesota,  kindly  offered  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta- 
tion the  use  of  its  laboratory.  The  writer  was  glad  to  take 
advantage  of  this  offer  and  assist  in  the  tests.  This  afforded  the 
apportunity  of  making  a detailed  comparative  study  of  the 
products.  The  Depai’tment  of  IMilling  and  Baking  of  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  made  the  eomparative  milling  and  baking 
tests  of  the  Kansas-gi’own  and  Wisconsin-gi’own  wheats  in  1913. 

Milling  and  Baking  Tests  to  Determine  the  Desirable 

Varieties 

Forty-eight  varieties  and  strains  of  wheat  Avere  tested  for, 
milling  and  baking  quality  in  the  seven  years  that  this  experi- 
ment Avas  carried  on.  Hard  spring  Avheat,  semi-hard  and  soft 
ATirieties  of  Avintei-  Avheats  and  a soft  spring  variety  Avere  in- 
cluded in  the  test.  Names  of  the  varieties  can  be  found  by 
referring  to  Table  XVIII.  As  some  pf  these  were  carried  on 
for  a very  short  time  before  being  discarded,  it  Avas  thought  in- 
advisable to  load  the  tables  and  discussion  Avith  this  discarded 
material.  The  complete  reports  on  the  milling  and  baking  tests 
are  reproduced  in  the  appendix.  The  most  important  data  in 
those  tests  are  summarized  in  the  folloAAung  tables. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


9 


Some  Promising  Tests  Carried  Through  1911,  1912,  1913 

Hard  winter  wheats,  Pedigrees  No.  2,  11,  21,  6 and  22  were 
close  competitors  in  the  initial  tests.  These  were  given  a three- 
year  test  and  eliininations  made  as  inferioilty  became  evident 
in  either  yield  or  milling  and  baking  quality.  The  comparative 
results  for  the  three  years  are  given  in  Table  1. 


Table  I. — A Comparison  of  the  Five  Best  Pediokeei)  Winter  Wheats 
Carried  Through  the  Three-Year  Test — 1911,  1912,  1913 


Name 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Average 

Rating 
(Ped.  No.  2= 
100  per  cent) 

Volume  of  lour 

Peii.  No.  2 

203 

196 

199.5 

100 

Peel.  No.  11 

199 

175 

187.0 

95 

Ped.  No.  21 

198 

201 

199.5 

100 

Ped.  No.  6 

196 

195 

195.5 

98 

Ped.  No.  22 

204 

186 

195.0 

98 

Yield  ol  flour 

Ped.  No.  2 

74.-5 

74.8 

74.65 

100 

Ped.  No.  11 

74.8 

73,4 

74.1 

99.2 

Ped.  No.  21 

76.8 

74.7 

75 . 75 

101.4 

Ped.  No.  6 

73.0 

74.8 

7l9 

98.9 

Ped.  No.  22 

75.3 

74.9 

75.1 

100.6 

Protein  in  wlieat 

Ped.  No.  2 

12.36 

12.08 

15.82 

13.42 

100 

Ped.  No.  11 

11.68 

10.45 

14.47 

12.20 

91 

Ped.  No.  21 

10.61 

11.17 

14.82 

12.20 

91 

Ped.  No.  6 

11.79 

11  04 

14.47 

12.43 

92 

Ped.  No.  22 

10.69 

10.98  ; 

13.88 

11.85 

88 

Dry  gluten  ten^t^ 

Ped.  No  2 

10.83 

12.8 

11  81 

100 

Ped.  No.  11 

9.79 

11.6 

10  70 

91 

Ped.  No.  21  

10,00 

12.0 

11.00 

93 

Ped.  No.  6 

9.58 

11  2 

10  39 

88 

Ped.  No.  22 

10.21 

11  8 

11.00 

93 

Yield  per  aere 

Ped.  No  2 

21.6 

38.3 

45.0 

35.0 

Ped.  No.  11 

34  0 

28  3 

42.6 

35.0 

Ped.  No.  21 

27.3 

34.3 

47.3 

36.3 

Ped.  No.  6 

23.3 

30.3 

43.0 

32  2 

Ped.  No  22 

26.6 

29.0 

46.3 

34!i 

Pedigree  No.  2 and  No.  21  give  the  largest  loaf  volume.  In 
yield  per  acre  Pedigree  No.  21  is  slightly  highest  but  the  dif- 
ference between  it  and  Pedigree  No.  2 and  Pedigree  No.  11  is 
within  the  limits  of  error.  In  flour  yield  Pedigree  No.  21  is 
slightly  ahead.  In  per  cent  gluten  and  protein  in  wheat.  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 was  appreciably  higher.  Pedigree  No.  2 and  No.  21 
having  the  highest  averages  for  both  quality  and  yield  are  se- 
lected from  this  lot  for  further  test,  and  the  other  varieties  dis- 
earded. 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


Milling  and  Baking  Tests  of  Wfieat  Grown  on  Different 
Types  of  AVisconsin  Soils 

An  opportunity  was  afforded  in  1914  to  test  some  of  the  sta- 
tion-grown wheats  on  a light  sandy  soil  in  Waupaca  county  and 
upon  the  Kewaunee  clay  loam  of  Fond  du  Lac  county.  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 and  No.  37  winter  wheats  were  grown  on  the  Miami 
silt  loam  of  the  station  farm  and  also  upon  the  Kewaunee  clay 
loam  in  Fond  du  Lac  county.  Table  II  gives  the  results  of  the 
test. 

Table  II. —Milling  and  Baking  Tests  of  Wheat  Grown  on  Differ- 
ent Types  of  Wisconsin  Soils  in  1914 


Flour 

Loaf 

Name 

Soil 

Per  cent 
yield 

Color 

Per  cent 
absorption 

xi 

in 

< 

Vol.  cu.  in. 

Water  used 
ounces 

Quality 

Gluten 
per  cent 

Ped.  No.  2 

Miami  silt 
loam 

65.2 

9 9 

61.5 

.50 

148 

6.85 

Little  creamy. . . 
Rich  crust 
Very  good  qual- 
ity 

10.57 

Ped.  No.  2 

Kewaunee 
clay  loam 

63.6 

99 

62.5 

.42 

150 

7.03 

Little  creamy.. 
Rich  crust 
Very  good  qual- 
ity 

11.51 

No.  37 

Miami  silt 
loam 

64.5 

97 

61.0 

.36 

139 

6.85 

Soft  dough 

Very  pale  crust 
Fair  quality 

9,69 

No.  37 

Kewaunee 
clay  loam 

62.5 

96 

58.0 

.44 

137 

6.49 

Soft  dough 

Pale  crust 
Poor  quality 

8.55 

Ped.  No.  21 

Sandy  soil 

61.1 

99 

62.0 

.32 

150 

6.97 

Little  creamy... 
Rich  crust 
Excellent  qual- 
ity 

10.57 

Ped.  No.  21 

Kewaunee 
clay  loam 

62.7 

98 

62.0 

.34 

145 

6.97 

Very  creamy 

Rich  crust 
Good  quality 

9.88 

In  volume  of  loaf,  quality  of  loaf,  water  absorption,  and  color 
of  flour  no  consistent  differences  appear.  The  Pedigree  No.  2 
gives  a slightly  better  test  when  grown  on  the  Kewaunee  clay 
loam  while  the  No.  37  makes  a slightl}^  better  showing  when 
gro\\m  on  the  station  farm. 

Pedigree  No.  21  was  grown  on  the  Kewaunee  clay  loam  and 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


n 

upon  the  sandy  soil  of  Waupaca  county.  The  test  shows  no 
striking  differences.  The  clay  gives  a slightly  higher  flour  yield 
and  percentage  of  ash.  The  crop  grown  on  sand  gave  better 
color  of  flour,  more  gluten,  and  an  appreciably  larger  loaf  of 
better  quality. 

From  this  test  we  can  conclude  that  wide  variation  in  'quality 
need  not  be  ex^iected  in  wheat,  whether  grown  on  heavy  clay 
or  light  sand.  This  is  the  only  indication  of  what  quality  may 
be  expected  from  wlieat  grown  in  eastern  or  central  Wisconsin, 
as  the  other  tests  herein  reported  for  the  different  years  were 
made  on  wheats  grown  at  the  Station  farm. 

IjOaf  Volume 

Table  HI  shows  a comparison  in  loaf  volume  of  the  wheats 
given  a two-  or  a three-year  test  in  1915,  1916,  and  1917.  In 
1915  Pedigree  No.  2 gave  the  largest  loaf  in  all  the  tests  made. 
It  will  be  noted  that  it  leads  the  J\Iar(iuis  (No.  50)  on  a three- 
year  avei*age.  No.  70,  a 9hirkey  wheat,  exc'eeds  it  on  a two-year 
average. 


Table  III — Comparisons  in  Loaf  Volume  in  Cubic  Inches  From 
THE  Baking  Tests  op  1915,  191C,  1917. 


Name 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Av. 

No.  of 
years 

Rating 
Ped.  No.  2= 
100  per  cent. 

7 • ■ ■ 

Ped.  No.  2 Turkey  Ued 

209 

183 

191 

194 

3 

100 

No.  50  Martinis 

196 

193 

187 

192 

3 

99 

Ped.  No.  408 

196 

181 

182 

186 

3 

96 

No.  39  Turkey  Red 

203 

154 

185 

181 

3 

93 

78 

No.  37  Egyptian  Amber 

160 

138 

159 

152 

3 

No.  55  Farmer’s  Friend 

148 

128 

160 

145 

3 

75 

No.  59  Nixon  

136 

138 

150 

141 

3 

73 

No.  70  Beloglina  Selection 

192 

205 

198 

2 

106 

No.  71  “ “ 

137 

157 

147 

2 

79 

Ped.  No.  39  Dawson’s  Golden  Chart' 

113 

130 

121 

2 

65 

Ped.  No.  37  “ " " 

110 

125 

117 

2 

63 

The  average  of  the  hard  winters  (Pedigrees  No.  2 and  No. 
408,  No.  39,  No.  70,  No.  71)  is  181  cu.  in.,  of  the  semi-hards  (No. 
37,  No.  55,  No.  59)  is  146  cu.  in.,  of  the  soft  winters  (Pedigrees 
No.  37  and  No.  39)  is  119  cu.  in. 

The  per  cent  rating  in  these  tables  is  determined  from  the 
same  year’s  tests.  To  illustrate:  The  comparison  of  Pedigree 

No.  2 and  No.  37  is  made  from  the  average  of  the  three  years 


12  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 

1915-1917  which  is  194  cu.  in.  and  152  cu.  in.  respectively. 
In  comparing  Pedigree  No.  2 with  No.  70  the  averages  of  1916- 
1917  are  taken,  187  cu.  in.  and  198  cu.  in.,  respectively. 

Flour  Yield 

In  Table  IV  Pedigree  No.  2 rates  lower  than  several  others 
in  a three-year  average,  yet  in  1917  it  showed  a higher  per- 
centage than  any  other  hard  winter  wheat.  Pedigree  No.  408 
is  one  of  the, highest  in  the  three-year  average,  and  is  very  con- 
sistent, varying  only  .2  per  cent  in  flour  yield  in  these  years. 


Table  IV. — Comparisons  tn  Flour  Yield  From  the  Miixtng  Tests  op 

1915,  1916  1917 


Name 

i 

1915 

1 

1916 

1917 

Av. 

No.  of 
years 

Rating 
Fed.  No.  2= 
100  per  cent. 

Fed.  No.  408 

73.8 

73.8 

73.6 

73.7 

3 

101 

No.  37  Egyptian  Amber 

76.8 

70.5 

73.9 

73.7 

3 

101 

No.  39  Turkey  Red 

72.6 

75.0 

73.2 

73.6 

3 

101 

Fed.  No.  2 Turkey  Red 

70.3 

73.8 

74.5 

72.9 

3 

100 

No.  55  Farmer’s  Friend 

73.9 

71.5 

72.0 

72.5 

3 

99 

No.  50  Marquis 

72.5 

72.0 

72.4 

72.3 

3 

99 

No.  59  Nixon 

73.2 

71.2 

71.8 

72.1 

3 

99 

No.  70  Beloglina  Selection 

76.5 

74.3 

74.2 

75.0 

75.3 

74.6 

2 

102 

Fed.  No.  39  Dawson’s  Golden  Chaff. ..... 

2 

101 

Fed.  No.  37  Dawson’s  Golden  Chaff 

72.8 

75.2 

74.0 

2 

100  1 

No.  71  Belogllna  Selection 

74.3 

73.1 

73.7 

2 

99 

The  two  soft  winters  average  slightly  higher  in  flour  yield — | 
74.2  per  cent;  the  hard  winters  rank  next — 73.8  per  cent;  and  I 
the  semi-hard  winters  lowest — 72.8  per  cent.  As  variations  i 
show  between  these  groups  in  the  three-year  test  it  is  not  safe  I 
to  conclude  that  this  difference  will  hold  true  between  the  soft, 
hard,  and  semi-hard  winter  groups  grown  in  this  section. 

Gluten  Tests 

As  has  already  been  stated  the  quantity  of  gluten  is  not  a safe 
guide  in  determining  baking  (piality  in  wheats. 

Pedigree  No.  37  in  a two-year  average  shows  slightly  more 
gluten  than  does  Pedigree  No.  2 l)ut  is  very  much  inferior  in 
size  and  quality  of  loaf. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


13 


Table  V Comparisons  in  the  Percentage  op  Gluten  from  the 

Tests  op  1913,  1914,  1915,  1916,  1917 


Name 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Aver- 

age 

Num- 
ber of 
years 

Ped.  No.  2 Turkey  Red 

12.8 

10.57 

10.45 

10.13 

11.2 

11.0 

5 

No  .89  Turkey  Red 

12.4 

11.20 

10. 

10.31 

12.4 

11.2 

5 

No.  37  Egyptian  Amber 

10, 

9.69 

10.38 

8.06 

11.6 

9.9 

5 

No,  50  Marquis 

13.6 

12.46 

13.7 

12.25 

12. 

12.8 

5 

Ped.  No.  408  Bacska 

11.13 

10.36 

10.56 

13.8 

11.5 

4 

No.  55  Farmer’s  Friend 

9.78 

8.19 

11.8 

9.9 

3 

No.  59  Nixon 

10.17 

8.44 

11.2 

9.9 

3 

No.  70  Beloglina  Selection 

10.00 

13.2 

11.6 

2 

No.  71  Beioglina  Selection 

9.94 

11.8 

10.9 

2 

Ped.  No.  37  Dawson’s  Golden 
Chaff 

11.25 

11.2 

11.2 

2 

Ped.  No.  39  Dawson’s  Golden 
Chaff 

9.06 

10. 

9.5 

2 

When  quantity  and  quality  of  gluten  are  both  determined  we 
have  a much  better  index  of  loaf  volume,  but  even  then  it  is 
not  possible  to  predict  with  certainty  the  volume  of  a loaf  of  all 
samples.  No.  71  in  the  1917  test  is  an  example.  It  has  about 
" an  average  amount  of  gluten,  and  the  gluten  is  of  good  elastic 
quality.  A loaf  of  from  at  least  180  to  185  cubic  inches  could 
be  expected  from  it  instead  of  157  cubic  inches,  which  resulted 
in  the  baking  tests. 

The  hard  winters  give  an  average  test  of  11.2  per  cent  gluten 
of  very  good  quality.  The  semi-hard  winters  give  an  average 
of  9.9  per  cent  gluten  rather  soft  elastic  in  quality.  The  soft 
winters  show  an  average  test  of  10.3  per  cent  gluten  soft  elas- 
tic to  somewhat  sticky  in  quality. 


Table  VI — Yield  Per  Acre  in  Bushels 


Name 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Av. 

No.  of 
years 

Rating 
Ped.  No.  1= 
100  per  cent 

No.  39  Turkey  Red 

43.2 

48.4 

27.4 

49.0 

42.0 

4 

105 

No.  37  Egyptian  Amber 

50.0 

39.0 

25.5 

51.3 

41.4 

4 

103 

Ped.  No.  408  Bacska 

35.3 

40.4 

29.4 

*35.0 

35.0 

4 

101 

Ped.  No.  2 Turkey  Red 

40.7 

37.6 

30.5 

51.3 

40.0 

4 

100 

No.  50  Marquis 

15.2 

43.0 

18.4 

12.9 

22.4 

4 

56 

No.  59  Nixon 

54.6 

30.4 

51  7 

45.6 

,8 

115 

No.  55  Farmer’s  Friend 

56.6 

27  8 

48.3 

44  2 

3 

111 

Ped.  No.  37  Dawson’s  Golden  Chatt. 

36.3 

53.2 

44.7 

2 

108 

Ped.  No.  39  Dawson’s  Golden  Chaff. 

31.0 

49.5 

40,2 

2 

98 

No.  71  Beloglina  Selection 

30.5 

43  0 

36.7 

2 

89 

No.  70  Beloglina  Selection 

26.0 

37.7 

31.8 

2 

77 

* 1917  yield  of  Pedigree  No.  408  is  taken  from  the  records  of  the  Ashland  Branch 

station.  _ As  PWigree  No.  2 yielded  only  29.6  bushels  per  acre  there,  this  yield  instead 
of  the  yield  of  the  Madison  station  is  the  one  used  to  compare  these  two  varieties  in 
per  cent  rating. 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


Comparative  Yields  Per  Acre 

The  sample  in  Table  VI  giving  the  highest  average  for  the 
four  years  is  No.  39  (Kansas  570).  It  ranks  105  per  cent  of 
Pedigree  No.  2,  which  is  two  bushels  per  acre  more  in  four 
years.  Pedigree  No.  2 gave  the  highest  yield  two  of  the  four 
years. 

Note  the  consistently  high  yields  of  Pedigree  No.  2 and  Pedi- 
gree No.  408.  As  before  stated  selections  were  made  for  both 
yield  and  milling  and  baking  quality.  No  milling  and  baking 
tests  were  made  on  wheats  that  did  not  give  fairly  good  yields. 
No.  37,  which  surpasses  Pedigree  No.  2 in  average  yield,  is 
somewhat  erratic.  It  gives  a very  low  yield  in  1916  and  prac- 
tically doubles  this  yield  in  1914  and  1917.  The  1915  yields  of 
No.  55  and  No.  59  were  obtained  on  smaller  plots  than  the  others 
and  are  somewhat  abnormal.  If  these  yields  were  omitted  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 would  equal  the  higher  yielder  of  the  two. 

Pedigree  No.  2 and  Pfj)igree  No.  408 

Pedigree  No.  2,  developed  at  the  Madison  station  and  Pedi- 
gree No.  408  developed  at  the  Ashland  branch  station  have  been 
selected  as  the  best  wheats  as  far  as  tests  have  been  carried  on. 
Table  VII  gives  the  comparison  of  these  two  wheats  for  four 
consecutive  years.  The  loaf  volume  in  each  case  is  high,  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 averaging  somewhat  higher.  The  Pedigree  408  has 
the  advantage  in  flour  yield,  water  absorption,  and  per  cent  of 
gluten. 

Comparing  these  wlieats  each  year  we  find  that  one  has  ex- 
ceeded the  otlier  at  some  time  in  each  one  of  the  items  mentioned. 
Hence  a normal  fluctuation  might  place  one  ahead  of  the  other 
any  season,  and  the  milling  and  baking  qualities  can  therefore 
be  considered  equal. 

In  yields  per  acre  they  are  lioth  high,  the  average  for  the 
four  years  being  practically  the  same. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


15 


Table  VII. — The  Pekpormance  op  the  Two  Pure  Line  Winter  Wheats 
Recommended  to  Millers  and  Farmers  for  Their  Superior  Quali- 
ties—Pedigree  No.  2 AND  Pedigree  No.  408 


Yield  of 
flour 
per  cent 

Volume 
of  loaf, 
cu.  in. 

Absorp- 

tion 

per  cent 

Gluten 
per  cent 

Yield 

per 

acre 

1914 

Ped.  No.  2 

65.3 

148 

61.5 

10.57 

40.7 

Fed.  No.  408 

66.4 

150 

62. 

11.13 

35.3 

1915 

Ped.  No.  2 

70.3 

209 

58.3 

10.45 

37.6 

Ped.  No.  408 

73.8 

196 

56.2 

10.36 

40.4 

1916 

Ped.  No.  2 

73.8 

183 

58.8 

10.13 

30.5 

Ped.  No.  408 

73.8 

181 

60.9 

10.56 

29.4 

1917 

Ped.  No.  2 

74.5 

191 

58.8 

11.2 

*29.6 

*‘‘Ped.  No.  408 

73.6 

182 

58.8 

13.8 

35.0 

Average 

Ped.  No.  2 

70.95 

182.8 

59.3 

10.6 

34.6 

Ped.  No.  408  

71.9 

177.25 

59.5 

11.46 

35. 

* Yield  at  Ashland  Branch  Station. 
Sample  from  Ashland  Branch  Station. 


Pedigree  No.  2 is  a selection  from  the  Turkey  Red  stock.  It 
has  the  usual  Turkey  Red  characters — bearded,  rather  short, 
nearly  square  spike,  tapering  somewhat  at  the  tip.  The  berries 
are  medium  to  large  and  hard,  with  a percentage  of  yellow  ber- 
ries which  varies  with  the  season. 

Pedigree  No.  408  is  Bacska,  ,0.  I.  1562,  obtained  from  Buda- 
pest, Hungary.  In  appearance  it  is  very  much  like  Turkey 
Red.  The  kernel  in  this  particular  pedigree  averages  slightly 
larger  in  size. 

Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 Compared  With  Hard  Spring 

Wheat 

It  may  be  contended  that  all  the  merits  of  the  best  spring 
wheats  cannot  be  set  forth  in  a milling  test  made  on  a small 
experimental  mill  and  by  the  ordinary  baking  test,  but  these  tests 
furnish  sufficient  evidence  to  pass  judgments  on  wheats  for  all 
practical  purposes. 

From  experiments  quoted  earlier  in  this  work^  it  was  shown 
that  the  best  spring  wheats  gave  a test  superior  to  the  best  win- 


1 Thomas,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  557. 


k; 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


ters,  but  the  best  winters  tested  higher  than  the  average  of  the 
hard  springs. 

In  Table  VIII  Pedigree  No.  2 gives  an  average  for  the  six 
years  superior  to  Marquis  in  every  respect.  Particularly  in 
yield  the  Marquis  is  a very  poor  competitor,  only  64  per  cent 
of  that  of  Pedigree  No.  2. 


Table  VT II— Comparison  of  Pedigree  No.  2,  Turkey  Red  Winter, 
Wheat,  with  VVTsconstn-Grown  Marquis  Spring  Wheat 


Yield  of 

Volume 

Absorp- 

Weight 

Yield 

flour 

of  loaf 

tion 

of  loaf 

pel  acre 

per  cent 

cu.  in. 

per  cent 

ounces 

bushels 

1911 

Reu.  x\o.  2 

74.5 

203 

52.6 

17.06 

21.6 

Maniuis 

75.3 

173 

50.5 

16.75 

20.6 

' 1912 

Fed.  No.  2 

74.8 

196 

55.3 

17.25 

*45.0 

Maniuis 

73.9 

201  . 

52.3 

17.31 

*35.0 

1914 

Fed.  No.  2 

65.2 

148 

61  5 

40.7 

Marquis 

61.7 

142 

62.5 

15.2 

1915 

Fed.  No.  2 

70.3 

209 

58'4 

17.63 

37.6 

Marquis 

72.5 

196 

58.4 

17.75 

43.0 

1916 

Fed.  No.  2 

73.8 

183 

58.8 

17.81 

30.5 

Maniuis 

72.0 

193 

59.9 

17.88 

18.4 

1917 

Fed.  No.  2 

74.5 

191 

58.8 

17.69 

51.3 

Maniuis  

72.4 

187 

58.1 

17.56 

12.9 

Average 

Fed.  No.  2 

72.2 

188.3 

57.6 

17.49 

37.7 

Maniuis 

71.3 

182.0 

.57.5 

17  45 

24.2 

*1913  yields. 


However,  we  find  that  Pedigree  No.  2 does  not  always  lead  the 
iVlariiuis.  In  flour  yield  Maninis  exceeds  ITnligree  No.  2 two 
years  out  of  six;  in  volume  of  loaf  two  years;  in  absoi'iition  two 
years  (equalling  it  two  years)  ; in  weight  of  loaf  three  years. 
Fi’om  these  facts  Wisconsin  Pedigi'ce  No.  2 and  Wisconsin-grown 
IMarquis  can  lx*  ])laced  on  a par  in  milling  and  baking  quality. 

Table  IN  shows  a five-year  comparison  between  Pedigree  No. 
2 grown  at  the  Madison  station  and  the  average  northern  spring 
wheats  tested  by  the  Howard  laboratories.  The  five-year  aver- 
age is  slightly  in  favoi’  of  the  average  northern  springs  but  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 is  a very  (4ose  conqictitor. 


Qttaijttes  oi’  Wisconsin  (tRown  Wheats 


17 


Table  IX.— Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 and  Average  Northern 
Spring  Wheats  Tested  by  the  Howard  Laboratories  Com. 


PARED 


A 

Yield  of 
flour 
per  cent 

Volume  of 
loaf 
cu.  in. 

Absorption 
per  cent 

Weight  of 
loaf 
oz. 

1911 

Ped  No.  2 

74.5 

203 

52.6 

17.06 

Av.  northern  sprliiK' , 

70.0 

205 

,57.3  ; 

17.38 

1912  1 

Peel  No.  2 

74.8 

196 

i 

,55.3  ' 

17.25 

Av.  northern  s rintr 

72.0 

203 

55.3 

17.25 

1915 

Ped  No.  2 

70.3 

209 

,58.4 

17.63 

Av.  northern  soritijr 

! 71.0 

204 

57.3 

17.44 

1916 

Ped . No . 2 

1 

73.8 

183 

58.8 

17.81 

/\  V nnrtliprn  sprinu" 

72.8 

197 

56.8 

17.44 

1917 

Ped.  No.  2 

Av.  northern  spring- 

! 74.5 

71.0 

191 

204 

58.8 

.56.8 

1 

17.69 

17.44 

Average 

Ped.  No.  2 

Av.  northern  spring 

73.« 
1 71.4 

196.4 

202.6 

,56.8 

.56.7 

17.49 

17.19 

Referring  to  Table  IX  we  find  that  in  a five-year  test  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 exceeds  the  average  northern  spring  wheat  four  out 
of  the  five  years  in  yield  of  flour,  one  year  in  volume  of  loaf, 
and  three  years  in  percentage  of  water  absorption  and  weight  of 
loaf,  and  e(iuals  it  in  these  last  two  characters  one  year  in  the 
five  years  tested. 

In  the  foregoing  tables  we  find  that  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 
compares  very  ^favorably  with  Wisconsin-grown  Marquis  and  the 
average  northern  spring  wheat  in  milling  and  baking  tests,  and 
Pedigree  No.  2 and  Pedigree  No.  408  are  much  higher  yielders 
than  the  best  spring  wheats  grown  at  the  Madison  station  as 
shown  in  Table  IX.  Therefore,  at  the  present  writing,  at  least, 
these  two  hard  winter  wheats  are  to  be  recommended  above  the 
spring  wheats  for  southern  and  central  Wisconsin  conditions. 

Cumulative  Effect  of  Climate  Upon  Quality 

Wisconsin  climate  has  long  been  considered  unfavorable  for 
the  growing  of  good  hard  wheat.  Millers  have  felt  obliged  to 
introduce  new  stocks  from  the  hard  wheat  district  every  two  or 
three  years  to  keep  up  the  quality. 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


Wheat  was  believed  to  deteriorate;  i.  e.  to  soften  and  lose  its 
baking  strength  due  to  the  humid  climate.  From  conversation 
with  millers  upon  this  subject  the  writer  learned  that  these  opin- 
ions were  based  wholly  upon  observation.  If  these  observations 
are  correct,  it  puts  Wisconsin  in  the  group  of  semi-hard  winter 
wheat  states.  This  matter  seemed  of  enough  import  to  merit 
special  investigation. 

Several  strains  of  Turkey  wheats  were  introduced  from  Kan- 
sas in  1911.  One  of  the  best  of  these,  Kansas  No.  570  (Wis- 
consin No.  39),  was  sent  to  the  Department  of  Milling  Industry 
at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  in  1913  and  a milling  and 
baking  test  was  made  on  it  and  compared  with  the  original  stock 
grown  in  Kansas  the  same  year.  The  results  of  this  test  are 
shown  in  Table  X. 


Table  X. — Milling  Test  of  Turkey  Red  Wheat  Grown  in  Wiscon- 
sin FOR  Three  Years  Compared  With  the  Same  Strain  Grown  in 
Kansas. 


V ariety 

Kansas  Turkey  570,  Wisconsin  No.  39 

Grown  at  Manhattan. 
Kansas,  1913 

Grown  at  Madison,  ’ 
Wisconsin,  1913  t 

Test  weig'nt 

59  lbs. 

66.88  percent. 
32.99  per  cent. 

58.75  lbs. 

63  8 per  cent. 
, 34.4  per  cent. 

Straiariit  flour 

Feed 

Absorption 

Bakin 

65.00  per  cent. 

236.  min. 

2150.  c.  c. 

4.3  c.  c. 

5.34  gms. 

1880.  c.  c. 

91.  percent. 

94.  per  cent. 

flf  Test 

57.33  per  cent.  . 

215.  min.  ! 

2000.  c.  c i 

5.2  cc.  i 

5.07  gms.  i 

1960.  c.  c.  1 

95.  percent. 

96.  per  cent.  | 

Tim*^  ffirMiiKM  1 1 H.I ion 

Maxirpom  volnmftof  fioiif'h 

Oven  rise 

Weight  of  loaf 

Volume  of  loaf 

Color  of  crumb 

Texture  of  orumb 

I 


Reference  to  Table  X sliows  that  the  Wisconsin-grown  sample 
yielded  a little  less  flour  and  was  a little  lower  in  water  absorp- 
tion but  gave  a larger  loaf  with  a little  better  color  and  texture 
of  CTumb.  The  comment  on  the  report  sheet  is:  ‘‘This  flour 
gave  a very  satisfactory  loaf  and  compared  favorably  with  our 
Kansas  Turke}"  wheats.  ” 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


19 


Comparison  Winter  Wheat  Grown  in  Kansas  and  Wisconsin 

In  1917,  two  samples  of  Kansas  Turkey  No.  570  from  the  1916 
and  1917  crop  were  received  from  the  Kansas  station  and  sent 
to  the  Howard  laboratories  to  be  tested.  Comparisons  are  made 
with  the  same  wheat  introduced  from  Kansas  in  1911  and  grown 
continuously  at  Madison  since.  The  results  are  given  in  Table 
XI. 


Table  XL  — Comparative  Milling  and  Baking  Tests  op  Turkey  No 
570  (Wisconsin  No.  39),  Wisconsin  and  Kansas  Grown 


1916 

1917 

2-year  average 

Kansas- 

grown 

Wisconsin- 

grown 

Kansas- 

grown 

Wisconsin- 

grown 

Kansas- 

grown 

Wisconsin- 

grown 

Flour  yield,  prct. 

76.0 

75.0 

71.6 

73.2 

73.8 

74.1 

Color 

M 1.5 

M 1.5 

G 2 

1.5 

Quality 

Cr.  wh. 

Cr.  wh.  L. 

Cr.  wh. 

Cr.  wh. 

dull 

grayish 

dull 

dull 

Loaf  volume  cu.in 

191 

154 

180 

185 

185.5 

169.5 

Wt,  of  loaf,  ounces 

17.81 

17.81 

17.75 

17.75 

Oz.  water  used  . . . 

7.19 

7.06 

7.13 

7.13 

7.16 

7.1 

Color  of  crust .... 

Light 

Light 

Light 

Pale 

brown 

brown 

brown 

Shape 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Slightly 

cracked 

on  top 

Texture 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Odor 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Per  cent  gluten  . , 

11.6 

10.31 

17.3 

12.4 

14.5 

11.35 

Quality  of  gluten. 

Tough 

Elastic 

Rather 

Elastic 

elastic 

soft 

elastic 

As  the  1916  Kansas-grown  sample  was  tested  in  1917  this  test 
is  not  entirely  comparable  with  the  1916  Wisconsin-grown  crop 
which  was  tested  in  1916.  The  water  absorption  and  volume  of 
loaf  is  greater  due  to  the  year  of  storage.  In  flour  yield  the 
Wisconsin  sample  excels  one  year  and  the  Kansas  sample  the 
other.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  loaf  volume.  The  gluten  is 
considerably  higher  in  tlie  Kansas-grown  samifle.  The  other 
items  in  the  test  show  no  difference  of  any  consequence. 

In  these  tests  (Tables  X and  XI)  we  have  proof  that  a variety 
of  hard  wheat  does  not  deteriorate  in  quality  when  grown  in  Wis- 
consin. This  wheat  has  made  a good  record  in  Kansas  and  refer- 
ence to  the  tables  in  the  ajipendix  will  show  that  it  also  has  made 
a good  record  in  Wisconsin.  After  it  had  been  grown  continu- 
ously for  three  years  in  Wisconsin  the  milling  and  baking  tests 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


indicate  a very  favorable  comparison  with  the  Kansas-grown 
sample  of  the  same  year. 

The  tests  of  1916  and  1917,  after  this  wheat  had  been  grown 
continuously  in  this  state  for  six  and  seven  years  respectively, 
show  no  appreciable  differences  between  the  Wisconsin-grown 
and  Kansas-grown  samples. 

It  cannot  be  claimed  that  every  strain  of  hard  winter  wheat 
will  retain  its  character  entirely  when  grown  in  Wisconsin  and 
until  more  data  is  collected  we  cannot  generalize  too  much  on 


FIGURE  1.— LOAVES  FROM  KANSAS  NO.  .570— KANSAS  AND  WISCONSIN  GROWN. 


No.  1,  Kan.«as-grown  1916;  No.  2,  Kansas-grown  1917;  No.  .3,  Wisconsin-grown  1917. 
This  type  of  Turkey  wheat  gave  a very  favorable  test  when  compared  with  same 
stock  grown  in  Kansas. 


the  foregoing  tables.  Different  strains  might  inherit  varying 
tendencies  to  soften  in  humid  climates.  However,  from  the  fore- 
going data  we  can  refute  the  statement  that  Wisconsin  climate 
will  cause  every  hard  wheat  to  deteriorate  in  quality. 

The  Milling  and  Baking  Quality  of  the  Yellow  Berry  in 
Hard  Winter  Wheat 

Hard  winter  wheats  when  grown  in  regions  having  a consider- 
able amount  of  moisture  show,  a noticeable  percentage  of  soft 
kernels.  These  soft  berries  are  plump  and  light  yellow  in  ap- 
pearance, and  the  name  yellow  berry  has  therefore  been  applied 
to  them.  While  they  are  softer  than  the  hard  berries,  as  a rule 
they  are  not  as  soft  as  the  so-called  soft  Avheats. 

Cultural  practices  or  handling  of  the  crop,  climatic  conditions, 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


21 


fertilizers  and  inheritance  have  been  the  main  lines  of  investi- 
gation of  the  possible  causes  of  the  yellow  berry.  A brief  review 
of  these  investigations  is  given. 

Lyon  and  Keyser^  state  that  “\he  amount  of  yellow  berry  in- 
creases as  the  ripeness  of  the  grain  increases  and  also  with  the 
length  of  time  the  cut  grain  is  ex{)osed  to  the  weather.”  And 
further,  that  the  yellow  beury  is  invei’sely  ])roportional  to  the 
protein  content,  ‘'and  that  consequently  the  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  previous  to  harvesting  also  affect  the  (juality  of  the 
grain  in  respect  to  the  number  of  yellow  berries.” 

LeClerc  and  Leavitt^  present  evidence  to  show  that  the  yellow 
berry  is  the  result  of  climatic  intluences.  To  quote : “Seed 
grown  in  Kansas  or  South  Dakota  shows  either  no  starchy  grains 
or  not  more  than  12  per  cent  at  most;  yet  when  they  are  trans- 
ported to  California  and  grown  there  the  following  year,  the 
percentage  of  starchy  grains  increases  to  50  and  88  per  cent 
respectively.”  And  further:  “The  California  Crimean  wheat 
of  1906  with  64  per  cent  of  starchy  grain  gave  a crop  in  Kansas 
with  absolutely  no  appearance  of  starchy  grains.  It  was,  in 
fact,  identical  with  the  seeds  grown  continuously  in  Kansas. 
These  figures  again  show  what  a tremendous  factor  climate  is. 
The  results  further  show  that  the  white  spots  on  grains  are  not 
necessarily  hereditary  nor,  in  fact,  are  any  of  the  characteritics 
mentioned.  They  appear  rather  to  be  infiuenced  almost  alto- 
gether by  climatic  conditions  prevailing  during  the  growing  pe- 
riod or  even  previous  to  the  planting  of  the  crop.” 

LeClerc  and  Yoder^  state  that  “cropping  thru  a number  of 
generations  under  widely  different  environments  does 

not  alter  permanently  or  make  a noticeable  impression  upon  the 
transmissible,  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  wheat.” 
Headden'^  states  that  ‘ ‘ yellow  berry  can  be  very  much  lessened 
or  entirely  prevented  by  the  application  of  a sufficient  quantity 
of  available  nitrogen.”  And  further  he  states:  “Yellow  berry 

indicates  that  potassium  is  present  in  excess  of  what  is  necessary 
to  form  a ratio  to  the  available  nitrogen  present  advantageous 
to  the  formation  of  a hard  flinty  kernel.” 

Inheritance  has  also  been  studied  as  a possible  cause,  Rob- 

1 Nebraska  Bui.  No.  89. 

2 U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Bur.  of  Cbeni.  Bui.  128. 

” Jour.  Agr.  Res.  Vol.  I,  No.  4. 

“ Oolorado  Bui.  205. 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


erts  and  Freemaid  state  that  they  believe  that  the  yellow  berry 
is  heritable.  However,  Dr.  Roberts  has  since  stated  to  the  writer 
that  he  was  unable  to  verify  the  theory  upon  further  investiga-  ' 
tions. 

The  yellow  berry  is  very  prevalent  in  Wisconsin  and  millers 
have  considered  the  hard  wheat  grown  in  this  state  to  be  of  very 
inferior  quality  due  to  this.  It  becomes  a very  practical  prob- 
lem to  determine  just  how  deleterious  the  yellow  berry  is  in  this 
state  and  to  find,  if  possible,  if  there  are  any  controllable  fac- 
tors  influencing  yellow  berry  production. 


Study  of  Possible  Causes 


The  following  studies  were  undertaken  with  the  purpose  of 
determining  whether  the  ordinary  fluctuations  in  climatic  condi- ' 
tions  or  different  cultural  practices  influence  yellow  berry  pro- 
duction. They  are  incidental  to  the  problem  and  are  sugges-  , 
tive  rather  than  definite.  ^ ^ 

Seasonal  influence.  Evidently  the  season  is  the  greatest  fac-  ^ 
tor.  Note  the  variation  in  percentage  of  yellow  berry  in  Pedi- 
gree No.  2 for  the  different  years  as  shown  in  Table  Nil.  In  j 
1914,  there  was  10  per  emit  of  yellow  berry  in  the  crop.  It  was 
twice  as  high  in  1917,  three  times  as  high  in  1915,  and  fouiy 
times  as  high  in  1916.  As  this  is  a pure  line  and  grown  under> 
field  conditions  as  unvarying  as  possible  from  year  to  year,  the 
variable  factor  evidently  is  the  climate.  { 

I 

Table  XU.— Percentage  of  Yellow  Berries  in  the  Crop  op  Dip-  j 

PERENT  Years  1 


Note  also  that  the  non-pedigreed  strains  in  1914  show  a very 
much  smaller  percentage  of  yellow  berry  in  the  crop  than  ni 


1 Kansas  Bill.  156. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


23 


the  crop  of  1915.  Note  also  the  low  percentage  of  yellow  berry 
in  the  1917  crop  of  No.  39. 

Inheritance.  Yellow  berries,  flinty  berries  and  non-selected 
kernels  have  been  planted  under  as  similar  conditions  as  possible 
in  different  years.  In  no  case  did  the  pure  yellow  parent  give 
a pure  yellow  progeny.  No  noticeable  difference  in  percentage 
of  yellow  berry  was  evident  in  the  different  lots  grown  from  the 
same  parentage. 


Table  XIII. — Inheritance  of  Hard  Berry  in  a Pure  Line  op 
Winter  Wheat 


Plant  No. 

1913 

1914 

1815 

1916 

1917 

None 

None.  

None.  1 

Per  cent 
6 
8 
5 
3 
5 

Per  cent 
35 
29 
40 
54 
48 

Per  cent 
31 
43 

Per  cent 
1 (No.  70) 
10  (No.  71) 

9 

10 

11 

None 

12 

None 

In  1912  selections  of  hard  berries  were  made  from  the  Belo- 
glina  stock  (No.  15),  to  see  if  a superior  strain  of  hard  berries 
would  result.  Each  kernel  was  planted  separately  and  in  1913 
only  those  plants  were  saved  which  had  no  yellow  berries. 
The  flve  selections  thus  made  were  planted  in  separate  rows  in 
the  fall  of  1913.  The  percentages  of  yellow  berry  found  in  the 
1914,  1915,  1916  and  1917  crops  are  given  in  Table  XIII. 
Plants  10,  11,  and  12  were  discarded  in  1915.  The  selection 
from  this  lot.  No.  70  and  No.  71,  are  pure  lines  from  plants  1 
and  9 respectively.  No.  71  averages  considerably  higher  in  per- 
centage of  yellow  berr}^  but  in  1915,  No.  70  exceeded  it  some- 
what. The  two  lines  are  the  ones  referred  to  later  in  the  work 
(Table  XVII)  showing  a difference  in  milling  and  baking  qual- 
ity between  two  pure  lines  of  hard  winter  wheat. 

In  1912  counts  were  made  on  four  pedigrees  of  Turkey  Red 
winter  wheats.  Note  the  variation  between  the  four  pure  lines 
from  the  same  type  of  hard  wheats,  as  shown  in  the  following 
tabulation. 

Pedigree  No.  2 25  per  cent 

Pedigree  No.  22 35.8  per  cent 

Pedigree  No.  25 45.8  per  cent 

Pedigree  No.  10 52.5  per  cent 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


To  summarize:  Yellow  berry  will  not  reproduce  all  yellow 
berry.  Hard  beri’ies  in  the  same  pure  line  will  reproduce  as 
many  yellow  berries  in  the  progeny  as  the  yellow  parents  will. 
The  yellow  berry  character,  therefore,  in  itself  is  not  heritable. 

We  have  evidence,  however,  to  show  that  some  pure  lines  of 
hard  winter  wheat  will  reproduce  a higher  percentage  of  yellow 
berries  than  others.  Note  the  counts  of  the  pedigrees  of  the 
Turkey  type  in  1912.  Pedigree  No.  2 gives  less  than  half  the 
])ercentage  of  yellow  ben*ies  that  Pedigree  No.  10  gives. 

The  conclusion  reached  concerning  inheritance  of  the  yellow 
berry  is  that  we  need  not  look  for  a difference  in  reproduction 
of  yellow  berries  between  the  yellow  and  hard  parent  in  the 
same  pure  line,  but  that  there  is  a very  considerable  difference 
between  ])ure  lines  in  their  tendencies  to  reproduce  hard  berries. 

Time  of  harvest.  In  1913,  1914  and  1915  the  influence  of 
several  different  dates  of  harvest  was  studied  on  different  varie- 
ties of  wheat.  In  1913  no  yellow  berries  were  found.  In  1914  ‘ 
the  earlier  cutting  dates  gave  a slightly  higher  percentage  of  ; 
yellow  berry  and  in  1915  the  later  cutting  dates  gave  the  higher 
percentage  of  yellow  lierry.  From  these  conflicting  results  it 
must  be  concluded  that  time  of  harvest  is  not  the  contributing  r 
factor. 

2 

Rate  of  seeding.  In  1915  counts  were  made  on  the  crops  ■ 
from  different  i*ates  of  seeding  in  a winter  and  a spring  wheat.  ’ 
The  results  ai‘e  conflicting  and  must  be  considered  negative.  | 

I 


Table  XIV.  — Protein  Determination  op  Yellow  Berries  vs.  Hard  | 

Berries  j 


1911  Crop 

Per  cent 
protein  in 
wheat 

1916  Crop 

Per  cent 
protein  in 
flour 

Durum  wheat,  spring- 

Hard 

14.42 

1 

Belofflina,  Wis.  No.  70 

Hard 

■/ 

10. 

Yellow 

12.02 

Yellow 

8 7 

Original 

9.94 

Beloglina.  hard  wintei- 

H ard 

\11.24 

Yellow 

' 7.69 

Qualities  of  Wisconsin  (irown  Wheats 


Protein  Content  of  Vellow  P>erries 

It  is  evident  from  Table  XI\"  that  the  yelloAV  berry  is  lower 
in  protein  than  the  hard  herry  and  the  same  statement  is  true 
of  the  flour  made  from  it. 


Table  XU. — Milling  and  Baking  Tests  of  Yellow  and  Hard 
Berries  in  the  1916  Crop 


Wis.  No.  70  Hard 

Wis.  No.  70 
Yellow 

Wis.  No.  70  le 
Original  samp 

Flour  yield 

72.4 

74.2 

76.5 

Pnlnr 

Good  1 o 

Good  1 . 5 

1.5 

Color  duality 

Cr.  wh.  L.  dull 

Cr.  wh.  L.  dull 

Cr.  wh.  dull 

Color  of  crust 

Light  brown 
180 

Very  light  brown 
181 

Light  brown 
192 

Vol  of  loaf  (cu.  in.) 

Shape  of  loaf 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Tpvtnrp.  of  loaf 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Wpig^ht  of  loaf  loz  ) 

18.13 

17.81 

18  06 
7.38 

Water  used  (oz.) 

7.50 

7.13 

Gluten  (per  cent) 

10. 

8.7 

10. 

Glntpn  duality 

Elastic,  smooth. 

Inelastic,  lumpy 
poor 

Yellow,  elastic, 
smooth,  good 

good 

^llLLING  AND  PaKINO  TeSTS  OF  VeLLOW  AND  HaRD  BeRRIES 

Table  XV  shows  the  results  of  the  test  made  in  1916.  Hand 
separations  of  yellow  lierries  and  hard  berries  were  made  from 
No.  70,  a pure  line  of  hard  winter  wheat,  and  with  the  original 
.samjile  the  grains  were  sent  to  the  Howard  AVheat  and  Flour 
Testing  Laboratory  of  Hinnea]>o]is  for  milling  and  liaking  tests. 

In  loaf  volume  it  will  lie  noted  that  the  original  sample  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  the  others.  The  hard  and  yellow  berries 
show  no  difference  of  any  practical  importance.  The  yellow 
berry  ranks  with  the  hard  winter  wheats  in  this  year’s  test. 

Color  of  flour  is  rated  the  same  for  hard  and  yellow  lierries. 

The  hard  berries  gave  the  highest  water  alisorption  and  weight 
of  loaf,  the  original  sample  ranked  next,  and  the  ^^ellow  berries 
the  lowest.  In  the  gluten  determination  the  yellow  berries  gave 
a lower  percentage  and  poorer  quality. 


2G 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


Ta.ble  XV[.  — Milling  and  Baking  Tests  op  Yellow  and  Hard 
Berries  in  the  1917  Crop 


No.  45 
Hard 

No.  45 
Yellow 

No.  45 

Original  sample 

Flour  yield 

74.6 

73.8 

72.0  . 

Color 

1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

Color  Quality 

Cr.  wh.  dull 

Wh.  cr.  dull 

AVh.  cr.  dull 

Color  of  crust 

Light  brown 

Light  brown 

Light  brown. 

Vol.  of  loaf  cu.  in 

174 

160 

166 

Shape  of  loaf 

Normal 

Normal 

Cracked  across 
end 

Texture  oflloaf 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

AVeight  of  loaf,  ounces 

18.13 

18.13 

18.06 

Water  used,  ounces 

7.56 

7.50 

7.44 

Gluten,  per  cent 

11.3 

9.2 

10.1 

Gluten.  Quality 

Elastic 

Sticky  elastic 

Elastic 

The  1917  test  shown  in  Table  XVI  was  carried  on  in  the  same 
manner.  The  yellow  berry  class  in  1916  included  berries  with 
yellow  cheeks,  while  in  1917  only  berries  entirely  yellow  were 
put  into  this  class.  No.  70  had  such  a small  percentage  of  yel- 
low berries  this  year  that  it  was  impossible  to  get  enough  for  a 
five-pound  sample  for  milling  test.  Hence,  No.  45,  another  pure 
line  of  hard  winter  wheat,  was  taken.  This  sample  contained  60 
per  cent  of  yellow  berry. 

In  volume  of  loaf  the  difference  between  the  yellow,  hard,  and 
original  samples  is  not  very  great  but  it  is  very  consistent.  The 
loaf  from  the  yellow  berry  is  six  cubic  inches  smaller  than  that 
of  the  original  sample  and  this  is  eight  cubic  inches  smaller,  than 
the  loaf  from  the  hard  lieri-y.  The  original  sample  is  almost  ex- 
actly the  average  between  the  hard  and  the  yellow.  This  we 
can  ex])ect  when  we  note  that  the  count  of  the  original  sample 
shows  60  per  cent  yellow  berries. 

In  com])aring  the  loaf  volume  of  the  yellow  berries  Avith  that 
of  the  soft  wheats.  Pedigrees  No.  37  and  No.  39,  we  find  the 
avei*age  of  the  latter  only  79  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  loaf 
from  the  yellow  berry. 

In  water  absorption  and  weight  of  loaf  the  yelloAv  berry  sam- 
ple exceeds  the  original  quite  a])])i*eciably.  While  it  is  lower 
in  water  absor])tion  than  the  hard  berry  sample,  yet  it  is  a very 
strong  floui*  for  it  absorbed  more  Avater  than  any  of  the  other 
hard  Avheats  exce])t  Kharkov  208  in  the  1917  test. 

In  amount  of  gluten  the  hard  berries  give  the  highest  test  and 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  "Wheats 

the  yellow  berries  the  lowest.  The  quality  of  the  gluten  is  also 
noticeably  poorer  in  the  latter. 

A review  of  these  two-year  milling  and  baking  tests  of  the 
yellow  berry  shows  that  it  is  not  nearly  so  deleterious  a factor 
as  is  generally  supposed.  While  it  averages  slightly  lower  in 
loaf  volume  than  a good  sample  of  hard  winter  wheat,  yet  it  is 
far  superior  to  the  soft  winters.  It  seems  to  retain  some  of  the 
inherited  factors  for  good  baking  quality,  despite  the  fact  that  it 
is  lower  in  protein. 


figure  2.— loaves  from  yellow,  hard  and  unsorted  wheat  of  the 

SAME  PEDIGREE. 

No.  1,  Yellow  berry;  No.  2,  Hard  berry;  No.  3,' Unsorted. 

While  the  yellow  berries  of  a hard  wheat  variety  do  not  give  as  good  a milling  and 
baking  test  as  the  hard  berries  from  the  sam?  sample,  yet  they  are  much  superior  to 
the  soft  winter  wheats. 

A sharp  discrimination  on  the  market  is  made  against  a sam- 
ple containing  a high  percentage  of  yellow  berries.  For  milling 
purposes  this  is  justifiable,  owing  to  the  variation  in  texture  be- 
tween the  yellow  and  hard  berries,  but  from  the  baking  stand- 
point a wide  variation  does  not  seem  to  exist. 


Variation  Between  Two  Pure  Lines  From  Beloglina  Stock 
Shown  in  Milling  and  Baking  Tests 

A very  interesting  variation  in  baking  quality  between  two 
pure  lines  of  the  same  stock  came  to  the  attention  of  the  writer 
in  compiling  the  material  for  this  publication. 

In  1912,  several  large  hard  berries  were  selected  from  the 


28 


Wisconsin  Reseakch  Bulletin  43 


Belogliiia  stock  (No.  15)  to  see  if  a strain  could  be  developed 
which  would  continue  to  reproduce  the  hard  character. 

Two  apparently  superior  lines  were  kept,  No.  70  and  No.  71. 
There  is  no  difference  in  appearance  between  them  except  that 
No.  71  has  a tendency  to  have  a somewhat  higher  percentage  of 
yellow  berry.  In  1916,  they  were  tested  with  the  others  for 


FIGURE  3.— LOAVES  FROM  TWO  DIFFERENT  PURE 
LINES  OF  TURKEY  RED  WHEAT. 

No.  1.  Wisconsin  No.  70;  No.  2.  Wisconsin  No.  71. 

Tlie  loaf  from  No.  71  is  smaller  and  much  poorer  in  texture. 

milling  and  baking  quality.  The  variation  between  these  two 
was  very  striking.  No!  70  gave  the  largest  loaf  volume  of  all 
the  hard  winter  wheats  and  No.  71  the  lowest.  The  test  was 
repeated  in  1917  and  the  results  are  given  in  Table  XVII. 


Table  XVII Variation  Between  Two  Pure  Line  Selections  From 

Beloglina  Stock  Shown  in  Milling  and  Baking  Tests 


1916 

1917 

No.  70 

No.  71 

No.  70 

No.  71 

Flour  yield  per 

cent 

76.5 

74.3 

74.2 

73.1 

Color 

1.5 

1.5 

G 1.5 

M 1.5 

Quality 

Cr.  wh. 

Cr.  wh. 

Cr.  wh. 

Cr.  wh. 

Loaf  volume 

dull 

L.  dull 

-L.  dull 

dull 

cu.  in 

Wt.  of  loaf 

192 

137 

205 

157 

ounces 

Water  used 

18.06 

18.06 

18.38 

17.69 

ounces 

7.38 

7 . 25 

6.81 

6.94 

Color  of  crust 

Light 

Light 

Light 

Light 

brown 

brown 

brown 

brown 

Shape 

Normal 

Cracked 
on  top 

Normal 

Normal 

Texture 

Normal 

Coarse 

Normal 

Normal 

Gluten,  per  cent,. 

10. 

9.94 

13  2 

11.8 

Quality  of  gluten. 

Elastic 

Soft, 

Very 

good 

poor 

elastic 

Elastic 

Two  year  average 


No.  70 

No.  71 

75.3 

73.7 

198.5 

18.22 

7.2 

147. 

17.87 

7.2 

11.0 

10.87 

Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


29 


In  1916  No.  71  was  55  cubic  inches  smaller  in  loaf  volume  than 
No.  70  and  in  1917,  48  cubic  inches  smaller.  In  1916  No.  71 
gave  only  71  per  cent  as  large  a loaf  as  No.  70  and  in  1917,  76 
per  cent.  In  flour  yield  and  amount  of  gluten  No.  71  gives  the 
lowest  test.  The  quality  of  the  gluten  is  noticeably  inferior.  In 
water  absorption  No.  71  exceeds  No.  70  in  1917,  yet  the  aver- 
age for  the  two  years  is  the  same. 

Turning  to  the  yield  per  aci*e  shown  in  Table  VI  we  find  No. 
70  is  consistently  lower  in  yield  for  1916  and  1917  than  No.  71, 
averaging  nine  bushels  an  acre  less  these  two  years.  Unfortu- 
nately, this  wheat,  which  gives  the  largest  loaf  volume,  is  lowest 
in  yields  of  all  the  winter  wheats  shown  in  Table  VI.  The  yield 
is  so  low  and  the  straw  so  weak  that  it  cannot  be  recommended 
for  practical  purposes. 

While  a two-year  test  is  too  short  for  measuring  differences, 
yet  the  close  parallel  of  each  year’s  performance  cannot  be  attrib- 
uted to  accident.  Heredity  evidently  is  a very  material  contrib- 
utor to  differences  both  in  (piality  and  in  yield.  This  evidence 
bears  out  the  assumption  made  earlier  that  variations  in  results 
of  milling  and  baking  tests  found  between  samples  might  be  due, 
in  some  cases  at  least,  to  lieritable  qualities  within  the  particu- 
lar strains. 

Summary  of  the  Milling  and  Baking  Tests 

The  tests  reported  in  this  bulletin  were  carried  on  with  the 
practical  end  in  view  to  determine  whether  wheat  of  good  qual- 
ity can  be  grown  in  this  state,  and  to  select  the  best  varieties  for 
milling  and  baking  quality  and  yield  to  the  acre. 

The  spring  wheats  were  so  low  in  yield  to  the  acre  that  with 
the  exception  of  the  Marquis,  they  were  not  continued  long  in 
the  milling  and  baking  tests.  Two  ])ure  lines  of  hard  winter 
wheat,  Pedigree  No.  2 and  Pedigree  No.  408,  are  recommended 
to  millers  and  farmers  for  their  excellent  (juality  imd  high  yield 
as  shown  in  these  tests. 

A test  in  1914  did  not  reveal  any  striking  differences  in  milling 
and  baking  quality  between  pure  lines  of  Turkey  wheat  grown 
on  sandy  soil,  Kewaunee  clay  loam,  and  Miami  silt  loam.  Like- 
wise, a semi-hard  winter  wheat  showed  no  appreciable  difference 
in  quality  when  grown  upon  the  Kewaunee  chiy  loam  and  the 
Miami  silt  loam. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


In  a six-year  test,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 was  fully  equal 
to  the  Marquis  grown  at  the  Madison  station  in  milling  and 
baking  quality,  and  considerably  superior  in  yield. 

In  a five  year  test  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 compares  very 
favorably  in  milling  and  baking  quality  with  the  average  of  the 
northern  spring  wheats  tested  by  the  same  laboratory. 

Wheat  does  not  deteriorate  when  grown  in  Wisconsin.  Kan- 
sas No.  570,  Wisconsin  grown,  compared  very  favorably  in  mill- 
ing and  baking  (piality  with  the  Kansas-grown  crop  after  having 
been  grown  continuously  in  Wisconsin  for  seven  years. 

The  percentage  of  yellow  berries  in  hard  wheat  varies  with 
the  season  and  with  the  variety.  As  far  as  tests  were  conducted, 
no  evidence  could  be  obtained  showing  that  time  of  harvest 
or  varying  rates  of  seeding  were  contributory  causes. 

Concerning  the  inheritance  of  the  yellow  berry,  no  difference 
has  been  found  between  the  yellow  and  hard  berry  in  the  same 
pure  line  in  the  production  of  yellow  berry  in  their  progeny,  but 
there  may  be  a wide  difference  lietween  pure  lines  from  the  same 
stock  in  their  tendency  to  produce  yellow  berries. 

As  far  as  baking  tests  show,  the  yellow  berry  cannot  be  con- 
sidered very  detrimental.  In  one  test  the  loaf  baked  from  the 
yellow  berries  eijualled  those  from  the  average  hard  winter  wheat 
and  in  the  other  test  the  loaf  was  comparable  to  the  semi-hard 
winters. 

Pure  lines  of  hard  winter  wheats  may  be  almost  identical  in 
appearance  but  have  widely  different  capacity  for  baking  qual- 
ity. This  heritable  character  was  very  marked  in  No.  70  and 
No.  71,  the  former  giving  ai  baking  test  equal  to  the  best  hard 
winters  while  the  latter  ranked  with  the  semi-hard  winters  in 
size  of  loaf. 


Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


31 


Table  XVIII.— Description  of  the  Wheats  on  Which  Milling  and 
Baking  Tests  Were  Made 


Hard  AViiiter 

Bearded  White  Chaff 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  2 Tuikey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  6 Turkey  Red 
Wis,  Pedigree  No.  10  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  II  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  14  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  21  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  22  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  2.5  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  29  Turkey  Red 
Wis,  Pedigree  No.  32  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  33  Turkey  Red 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  408  Ba'^ska 
No.  15  Beloglina 
No.  38  Kharkov.  Kansas  No.  382 
No.  39  Turke.v  Red.  Kansas  No  570 
No.  40  Crimean.  Kansas  No.  762 
No.  42  Bearded  Fife, Kansas  No.  366 
No.  70  Selection  from  Beloglina  1 
No.  71  Selection  from  B eloglina 
No.  45  Turkey  Red 
No.  108  Kharkov 
No,  208  Kharkov 

Beardless  White  Chaff 
No.  41  Ghirka,  Kansas  No.  385 

Bearded  Red  Chaff 
No.  103  Red  Rock 


Semi-Hard  Winter 

Bearded  Red  Chaff 
No.  36  Tasmanian  Red 

Bearded  White  Chaff 
No.  37  Egyptian  Amber 
Wis. Pedigree  No. 40  Egyptian  Amber 
No, 55  Farmer’s  Friend  -Purdue 
Reg.  320 
No.  59  Nixon 

Beardless  White  Chaff 
No.  208  Padi 

Soft  Winter 

Beardless  Red  Chaff 
Wi.sconsin  Pedigree  No.  13 
Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  17 
Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  20 
Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  37  Dawson’s 
Golden  Chaff 

Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  39  Dawson’s 
Golden  Chaff 

Beardless  White  Chaff 
Wis.  Pedigree  No.  40 

Bearded  Red  Chaff 
No.  609  Selection  from  Kharkov 

Soft  Spring 

Beardless  Bronze  Chaff 
No.  23  .lohn  Brown 

Hard  Spring 

Bearded  Wnite  Chaff 
No.  7 Preston 
No.  33  Blue  Ribbon 

Beardless  White  Chaff 
No.  27  Fife 

Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  34  Fife 

No.  29  Marquis 

No,  50  Marquis 

No.  30  Blue  Stem 

No,  M Blue  Stem 

Wis.  Pedigree  No.  35  Blue  Stem 


The  Howard  System  of  Markings 

In  order  to  make  the  following'  tables  clear,  a brief  statement  of 
the  Howard  system  of  markings  is  necessary.  Five  pounds  of 
wheat  are  used  in  the  milling  and  baking  tests;  12  ounces  of  flour 
are  used  in  baking  loaves.  Color  is  maked  numerically,  1 being 
the  best,  1.5  next  lower,  and  so  forth.  Letters  used  in  this  con- 
nection are  M.  minimum,  G.  good,  F.  fair,  Cr.  creamy,  Wh.  white. 
Where  the  abbreviation  is  underlined,  the  quality  is  particularly 
prominent. 


32 


Wisconsin  Rkseakcii  P)UU.etin  43 


Table  XIX.  — Milling  and  Baking  Tests,  1911  Crop 


Name 

Fer 

cent 

yield 

of 

flour 

Flour 

Vol.  of 
;ioaf 
cu. in. 

Wt. 

of 

loaf 

oz. 

Water 

used 

oz. 

Protein 
analysis 
of  wheat 
NX  5.7 

Color 

Quality 

Fed.  No.  11 

74.8 

F 1 

Wh.  cr  . . . 

199 

17.19 

6.44 

11.68 

Fed.  No.  21 

76.8 

F 1 

Cr.  wh 

198 

17.06 

6.25 

10.61 

Fed.  No.  22 

75.3 

G 1.5 

White, 

little  dull. 

204 

17.06 

6.38 

10.69 

Fed.  No.  14 

75.5 

G 1.5 

Wh.  cr. 

little  dull 

203 

17.00 

6.19 

12.16 

Fed.  No.  17 

75.8 

G 1.5 

Cr.  wh 

little  dull. 

183 

17.13 

6.38 

11.73 

Fed.  No.  82 

71.0 

1.5 

Cr.wh.dull 

207 

17.06 

6.31 

11.97 

Fed.  No.  33 

75.3 

1.5 

Cr.wh.dull 

201 

17.25 

6.5 

11.11 

Fed.  No.  6 

73.0 

1.5 

Cr.wh.dull 

196 

17.25 

6.56 

11.79 

Fed.  No.  2 

74.5 

F 1.5 

Cr.wh.gr’y 

203 

17.06 

1 6.31 

12.36 

Fed.  No.  25.' 

.74.8 

1.5 

Cr.  wh. 

1 

little  dull. 

188 

17.25 

6.44 

10.98 

Fed.  No.  10 

76.0 

F1.5 

Cr.wh.  gr’y 

181 

17.31 

6.75 

11.99 

Fed.  No.  13 

73.5 

1.5 

Cr.  wh. 

little  dull. 

183 

17.19 

6.38 

10.98 

Fed.  No.  29 

75.3 

1.5 

Cr.  wh. 

little  gray 

173 

16.75 

6.06 

10.94 

Fed.  No.  20’ 

77.8 

1.5 

Cr.  wh. 

little  dull. 

178 

16.91 

6.06 

11.57 

Fed.  No.  15 

76.5 

1.5 

little  dull. 

183 

17.38 

6.75 

11.18  ; 

Fed.  No.  23 

75.5 

1.5 

Cr.  wh. 

*■ 

little  dull. 

194 

17.19 

6.38 

11.84  1 

Table  XX- — Milling  and  Baking  Tests,  1912  Crop 


Flour 

Loaf 

Name 

Yield 

per- 

cent. 

Color 

Quality 

Vol. 
cu. in. 

Weight 

oz. 

Water 

used 

oz. 

Protein 

in 

wheat 

Gluten 
jper  cent 

Fed.  No.  2 

74.8 

G 1.5 

Cr.  wh.L.  dull 

196 

17.25 

6.63 

12.08 

1 10.83 

Fed.  No.  21 

74.7 

F 1. 

Cr.  wh.L.  dull 

201 

17.13 

6.31 

11.17 

1 10. 

Fed.  No.  6 

74.8 

F 1. 

Cr.  wh.L.  dull 

195 

17.31 

6.63 

11.04 

9.58 

Fed.  No.  22 

74.9 

F 1. 

Cr.  wh.L.  dull 

186 

17.06 

6.31 

10.98 

10.21 

Fed.  No.  11 

73  4 

F 1. 

Wh.  cr 

175 

17,25 

6.5 

10.45 

9.79 

No.  15 

76.1 

F 1. 

Cr.  wh 

•190 

17.13 

6.38 

10.52 

10.63 

No.  33 

74.6 

1.5 

Cr.  wh.  dull. . 

203 

17.19 

6.38 

13.52 

12.5 

No.  31 

73.8 

1.5 

Cr.  wh.L.  dull 

212 

17.31 

6.63 

14.16 

No.  30 

73.2 

P 1.5 

Cr.  wh.  dull.. 

197 

17.75 

7.0 

16.10 

No.  29 

73.9 

1.5 

Cr.  wh.  dull. . 

201 

17.31 

6.63 

13.62 

No.  23 

74.3 

G 1.5 

Wh.  cr.  little 
grayish 

198 

17.25 

6.5 

15.11 

(^)i:alitie8  or  \Vi8Conj<ix  (Ikowx  Wheats 


Table  XXI. — Miu.ixo  am)  Bakix; 


Tests,  1913  Chop 


Name 

Gluten 

Chemigal  Analysis  of 

Wheats 

Wet 

Dry 

Qualtity 

1 

j Water 

Pro- 

tein 

Fat 

Fiber 

N.  free 
ex- 
tract I 

! 

Ash 

Pp(i.  No.  2... 

.38.4 

12.8 

Elastic 

9.19 

15.82 

1.71 

2.95 

68.5 

1.83 

Ped.  No.  6... 

.33.6 

11.2 

Stiff  elastic. . 

9.32 

14.72 

1.71 

2.92 

69.4  1 

1.90 

Ped.  No  11  . 

.34.8 

11.6 

Elastic 

9.42 

14.47 

1.53 

2.65 

70.14 

1.79 

Ped.  .No.  21. . 

36.2  1 

12.0 

Elastic 

9.47 

14.82 

1.69 

3.5 

69.13 

1.84 

Ped.  No  22. . 

35.6 

11.8 

Elastic 

9.63 

13.88 

1.72 

2.93 

70.15 

1.69 

No.  39 

.37.2 

12.4 

Elastic 

9.77 

14.91 

2.32 

2.36 

68.94 

1.7 

No.  15 

.35.2 

11.6 

Elastic 

9.63 

14.66 

1.6 

2.89 

69.36 

1.86 

No.  36 

38.0  i 

12.8 

Soft  elastic.. 

9.73 

15.47 

1.65 

2.56 

68.70 

1.89 

No.  37 

30.4 

10.0 

Soft  elastic.. 

9.45 

14.91 

1.96 

2.49 

69.43 

1.76 

No.  38 

.35.2  ! 

11.6 

Elastic 

10.19 

14.25 

1.57 

2.51 

69.82 

1.65 

No.  40 

33.6 

11.2 

Elastic 

9.77 

14.07 

1.49 

2.33  1 

70.57 

1.77 

No.  41 

.36.8 

12.2 

Elastic 

9.97 

14.28  . 

1.59 

2.53 

69.79 

1.84 

No.  42 

.38,0 

12,8 

Elastic 

9.73 

16.07  , 

1.58 

2.52 

68.38 

1.72 

No.  7 

40.0 

13.2 

Soft  elastic.. 

9.53 

16.10  ! 

1.96 

2.81 

67 .5 

2.1 

No.  27 

.38.8 

12.8 

Soft  elastic. . 

9.59 

15.22  1 

2.40 

2.96 

67.68  1 

1 2.15 

No.  29 

41.6 

14.0 

Elastic 

9.56 

17.13 

2.21 

2.99 

66.02 

2.09 

No.  .so: 

.39.6 

13.2 

Elastic 

9.69 

16.63 

1.95 

2.77 

66.9 

2.06 

No.  31 

40.0 

13.2 

Elastic 

9.38 

16.25 

1.91 

2.99 

67.52 

1.95 

No.  33 

46.0 

15.2 

Soft  elastic.. 

9.31 

16.54 

1.80 

2.56 

67.69 

2.16 

No.  50 

41.2 

13.6 

Elastic 

9.89 

16.22 

2.13 

2.50 

67.36 

1.90 

£ 


Table  XXII. — Milling  and  Baking  Tests,  1914  Crop 


34 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 


Table  XXIII — Milling  and  Baking  Tests,  1915  Crop 


Qualities  op  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


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Qualities  of  Wisconsin  Grown  Wheats 


O' 

o 


PIGURB  4— LOAVES  OF  THE  1917  CROP 


No.  1.  Av.  Northern  Spring  Wheat 

No.  2.  Pedigree  No.  2,  Turkey  Red 

No.  3.  Pedigree  No.  408,  Baeska 

No.  4.  Wisconsin  No.  .50,  Marquis 

No.  5.  Wisconsin  No.  103,  Red  Rock 

No.  6.  Wisconsin  No.  .55,  Farmer’s  Friend 

No.  7.  Pedigree  No.  40,  Egyptian  Amber 


No.  8.  Wisconsin  No.  59,  Nixon 
No.  9.  Pedigree  No.  208,  Kharkov 
No.  10.  Pedigree  No.  39,  Dawson's  Golden 
Chaff 

No.  11.  Pedigree  No.  37,  Dawson’s  Golden 
Chaff 


Compare  the  best  hard  winters,  Nos.  2 and  3,  with  sample  No.  1, 
Spring  Patent,  and  with  Nos.  10  and  11,  soft  winters. 


Av.  Northerc 


Table  XXV — Milling  and  Baking  Tests,  1917  Crop 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  43 

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be  a 


Research  Bulletin  44  February,  1919 


Farm  Tenancy 

An  Analysis  of  the  Occupancy  of  500  Farms 

C.  J.  GALPIN  and  EMILY  F.  HOAG 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction 1 

Part  I — Occupancy  of  farms  ^ 

Farms  occupied  by  owners  and  tenants--- 6 

Farms  occupied  by  related  and  unrelated  tenants 7 

Part  II — Purchase  of  farms 

Status  of  farm  purchasers 8 

Present  status  of  farm  tenants - 9 

Sizes  of  farms  rented  and  purchased 9 

Part  III — Retreat  of  farm  owners 

General  status  of  retreating  farmers 10 

Occupancy  of  farms  of  retreating  owners 12 

Residence  of  retreating  farmers 14 

Employment  of  retreating  farmers 15' 

Part  IV — Shifting  of  tenants 

Number  of  tenant  shifts 16  ; 

Number  of  farms  on  which  shifts  occur 17 

Number  of  shifting  tenants 18  > 

Index  numbers  of  tenant  shifting 18  ^ 


7^ 


Farm  Tenancy 

An  Analysis  op  the  Occupancy  of  500  Farms 
Introduction 

The  National  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Research  in 
Country  Life,  which  was  appointed  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
American  Sociological  Society  in  1917,  proposed  that  some  rc- 


i PIG.  1.— MAP  OF  THE  SUN  PRAIRIE  COMMUNITY 

u That  portion  of  the  map  enclosed  within  the  broad  dotted  line  contains  the  500  farms 
1 visited.  Each  dot  represents  a farmstead.  The  whole  map  is  made  up  of  four  town- 
ie ships.  The  Sun  Prairie  Community  includes  a part  of  each  of  these  townships.  High- 

(I  ways  are  indicated  by  unbroken  lines.  Railways  are  represented  by  crossed  lines. 


sponsible  agency  in  every  state  make  a field  study  of  farm  tenancy 
j in  certain  communities  of  the  state.  It  was  recommended  by 
I the  committee  that  the  social  aspects  of  tenancy,  and  especially 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


the  shifting  of  farm  tenants,  form  the  body  of  the  investigation. 

In  accord  with  this  plan  of  cooperative  national  research,  the 
Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  of  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture selected  a Wisconsin  community  and  made  an  analysis 
of  its  farm  tenancy. 

During  the  month  of  September,  1918,  Miss  Emily  F.  Hoag,  | 
assistant  in  agricultural  econonmics  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, made  a farmstead  to  farmstead  visit  with  a horse  and 
buggy  to  500  farm  homes  in  Dane  county,  Wisconsin,  obtaining  | 
a history  of  the  occupancy  of  each  farm  during  the  ten-yeai  j 
period,  1909-18.  The  selection  of  this  particular  group  of  farms  | 
was  made  with  the  intent  of  including  all  the  farms  belonging  j 
in  one  business  community, — and  no  other  farms.  Fortunately,  : 
there  was  available  a recent  map  of  the  county  showing  all  the 
farm  homes  grouped  together,  which  regularly  trade  at  any  one  j 
business  center. 

’Sun  Prairie,  a vigorous  village  of  some  1200  inhabitants,  is 
the  business  and  institutional  center  of  the  particular  com-  jj 
miinity  chosen  to  be  studied.  All  told,  a population  of  about  '! 
3500  persons  is  involved  in  this  community ; and  village  churches, 
library,  newspaper,  banks  and  high  school  serve  both  farmers  and 
townsmen.  From  the  social  point  of  view,  it  will  be  important  : 
to  bear  in  mind  that  the  land-holding  relations  on  these  500  farms 
are  interwoven  in  one  community  fabric.  The  map  shows  the  ,| 
relative  location  of  the  farms  studied  in  the  trade  area  of  Sun 

Prairie.  ^ . j 

The  method  of  field  work  was  simple.  Previous  to  the  visit  ^ 
to  the  farms,  an  announcement  was  made  in  the  local  paper  ex- 
plaining the  ])urpose  of  the  visit  to  each  farm.  This  prepared 
the  way  and  made  an  approach  to  each  home  easy. 

A map  showing  the  location  of  every  farm  home  on  its  ovn 
highway  was  indispensable.  These  farm  homes  were  numbered 
serially  up  to  500  and  each  farm  was  given  its  number  on  the 
field  sheets. 

The,  sample  field  sheet  shows  exactly  how  the  information  was 
recorded.  The  general  question  put  to  each  family  was,  ‘ Mho 
has  occupied  this  farm  in  each  of  the  last  ten  years?”  Then, 
naturally,  conversation  would  develop  as  to  the  facts  of  owner-  , 
ship,  tenancy,  relationship  of  tenants,  etc.  In  cases  where  the 
present  occupant  did  not  know  all  the  facts,  neighbors  were 
usually  found  who  did  know.  A few  odds  and  ends  of  unfin- 


Farm  Tenancy 


5 


ished  data  were  referred  to  bankers,  merchants,  retired  farmers, 
and  the  encyclopedic  old  settler,  with  success. 

A recent  rural  directory  of  the  county  was  of  considerable 
assistance  in  hunting  down  the  present  status  of  persons  who 
had  moved  out  of  the  Sun  Prairie  community.  This  directory 
was  also  the  source  of  facts  on  sizes  of  farms,  and  on  present 
residence  and  status  of  retired  farmers. 


Shifting  of  Farm  Tenants 


Commuaiti/ 

Ta.rm\  Tlame 
Tie.  >ef  Farm 

1918 

1917 

I9J6  i 1915 

1 1 

19/4  : 1913 

19/2 

1911 

1910 

1909 

2Q9^a.(^a^ 

B 

ti<& 

A i A 

A 1 A 

A 

A 

A 

Pit//24ot 

seejlo.17 

; 

i 

A 

kivy' 

rr-f/rV^ 

It 

ft  i fff'  ^ 

Ot  'V  7 

/.  (Ar-] 

'cv'  tr^  rC 

21  / 

A 

A 

A : A 

tJ  3## 

(P&oA/a. 

A 

i!X  # 

Q/ott 

! 

; 

\seeLm 

O.N.  216 
see  160 

see  3/1 

m'Xfi/Ai 

B 

B 

B : B 

R './a/A'- 

A /# 

/# 

/X  # 

— — 1 — — 

o.ii. 

jf.t/ayk. 

A 3n-»^a  2H-» 

M Z.  Tq/C& 

A / 

(F  not/ 

A 

A 

U.tfctu^ 

: ^ 

yp' 

4m 

neiaUn ' /fo-dUr 
se9  207  \ see//o.  2/4 

see  366  1 

O.N  UbO 
see  izn 



ZiA'J.lZ^2 

A 

A 

A : A 

A ; A 

A 

A 

A 

1 

y 

"3  WW 

(f(Mu 

A^  = 

/--  1 /= 

/ = 

/ = 

J- 

C-imM. 

(Totoioar) 

O.N. 

<l4en  • 
see -490  ' 

i 

1 Am 
see  38 

1 

A 

A 

A ’ A 

A ! A 

AX» 

Q.Hae^ 

1- 

I-- 

K^Ctat 

[ / 

1 

A.B.G.  etc.  repre^en/s  ou//?er  o/?fyr/?2 
1,2,3  " " >•  " 

X = Shift  frm  same  com/?7u/7ify 
H--  - '•  another 

0 = Former/y  our/?er  ef  aao/Aer  farm 
O.n.-  Preseaf  (i9ieP‘ 


o = Shift  to  aaott?er  commuw/y 
//  » same 

- = fte/dtect  to  /amity  of  oumer 
# = Plot  re  id  ted  to  f amity  of  our/?er 
e ^ Te/7d/?t  uras  just  previous/y  an  ouraer 
® - Ouraer  - ..  ..  a teaaat 


FIG.  2.— SAMPLE  SHEET  OP  THE  FIELD  RECORD 


This  record  sheet  gives  the  history  of  eight  farms,  as  set  down  at  the  time  of  the 

visits  to  the  farms. 

The  tables  relating  to  ' ' retired  farmers  ’ ’ were  an  after-thought 
growing  out  of  the  field  study.  A list  of  the  retired  farmers 
living  in  Sun  Prairie  was  furnished  by  the  local  business  men’s 
association  as  a possible  source  of  information.  The  list,  together 
with  the  constant  reiteration  of  the  fact  that  Mr.  So-and-so  is  a 
retired  farmer,  suggested  to  the  investigator  that  the  retired 
farmer  was  closely  connected  with  the  problem  of  tenancy  and 
merited  consideration  in  the  study.  Thereupon,  a supple- 
mentary study  was  made  of  the  retired  farmer.  As  soon  as  the 
problem  of  tenancy  was  actually  connected  with  the  problem  of 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


the  retired  farmer,  it  became  apparent  that  the  gradual  ''ad- 
vance” of  youths  into  farming  corresponded  with  the  slow  "re- 
treat ’ ’ of  veterans  from  farming. 

The  main  statistical  facts  of  the  study  are  presented  in  table 
form,  without,  however,  any  attempt  at  this  time  to  interpret 
them.  That  analyses  similar  to  this  in  many  partsmf  Wisconsin 
and  other  states  will  enable  students  of  agricultural  tenantry  to 
think  more  clearly  on  the  subject,  goes  without  saying. 

It  is-  hoped  that  rural  social  investigators  in  every  state  will 
begin  a close  examination  of  farm  tenancy  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  human  relations  involved  in  each  farmstead  situation. 


PART  I.— OCCUPANCY  OF  FARMS 

Table  I. — Farms  Occupied  by  Owners  and  Tenants 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

ISIO 

1909 

Total  number  of  farms. . . 
Number  of  farms  occu- 

493 

491 

485 

479 

476 

475 

472 

466 

465 

463 

pied  by  owners 

Number  of  farms  occu- 

347 

344 

336 

343 

352 

349 

354 

362 

356 

368 

pied  by  tenants 

146 

147 

149 

136 

124 

126 

118 

104 

109 

95 

Owner  per  cent 

71- 

71- 

70- 

72— 

74- 

74- 

75— 

78- 

77— 

80— 

Tenant  per  cent 

29+ 

29+ 

®^30+ 

28+ 

26+ 

26+ 

25+ 

22+ 

23+1 

20+ 

Farms  not  leased  during  the  ten  years 246 

Farms  leased  during  ten-year  period 42 

Farms  sometimes  leased,  sometimes  not  leased 212 


While  the  total  number  of  different  farms  in  the  Sun  Prairie 
community  during  the  ten-year  period  is  500,  it  is  evident  that, 
due  to  the  occasional  division  of  farms  and  the  shifting  of  iand 
from  one  farm  to  another,  the  number  of  farms  Avill  tend  to  vg.ry 
from  year  to  year.  A few  tenants  occupy  more  than  one  farm 
at  the  same  time. 

It  is  a matter  of  some  interest  that  246  farms  were  constantly 
occupied  by  their  owners ; that  42  farms  were  constantly  leased 
and  may  be  classed  as  "tenant  farms” ; and  that  212  farms  were 
in  a state  of  oscillation  between  owner  occupants  and  tenant  oc- 
cupants. 


Farm  Tenancy 


Table  II. — Farms  Occupied  by  Tenants  Related  and  Unrelated 
TO  the  Owners 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Total 

Number  of  farms 
occupied  by  ten- 
ants related  to 
owners 

70 

70 

72 

61 

56 

50 

51 

46 

45 

36 

125 

Number  of  farms 
occupied  by  ten- 
ants unrelated  to 
owners 

76 

77 

77 

75 

68 

76 

67 

58 

64 

59 

154 

Per  cent  of  related 

tpna.nts 

47+ 

47+ 

48+i 

44  + 

45+ 

39+ 

43+ 

44+ 

40+ 

37+ 

Per  cent  of  unre- 

lated tenants 

53- 

53- 

52- 

56— 

55— 

61- 

57- 

56— 

60- 

63- 

In  estimating  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  Ameri- 
can system  of  tenancy,  it  has  been  urged  of  late  that  an  analysis 
of  all  tenants  in  a community  will  show  a certain  rather  constant 
proportion  of  the  tenants  to  be  related  to  the  landlord.  The 
above  table,  it  is  worth  mentioning,  confirms  the  contention  that 
much  tenancy  is  a modus  vivendi  of  a near  relative,  and  a pro- 
cedure quite  satisfactory  to  both  parties,  if  not  always  in  reality 
a step  toward  ownership  wherein  inheritance  plays  a distinct 
role. 

The  degree  of  relationship  in  this  table  is  almost  invariably 
that  of  son  or  son-in-law.  One  case  each  of  a nephew,  a brother, 
a father-in-law  and  a cousin  is  included. 

Nine  farms  were  occupied  continuously  during  the  ten-year 
period  by  tenants  related  to  the  owners;  33  farms,  by  tenants 
unrelated  to  the  owners.  The  total  number  of  farms  occupied 
by  tenants  related  to  the  owners  turns  out  to  be  125 ; by  tenants 
unrelated,  154 ; by  tenants  both  related  and  unrelated,  25. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


PART  II.  PURCHASE  OF  FARMS 


Table  III. — Status  of  Farm  Purchasers 


PuiiCHASERS  Not  Formerly  Owners  of  Farms 

Form- 

1 

Tenants 

Non-tenants 

erly 

owners 

Un- 

known 

Total 

Sons 

buying 

home 

farm 

after 

renting 

it 

Unre- 

lated 

tenants 

buying 

farm 

after 

renting 

it 

Unre- 

lated 

tenant 

buying 

other 

farm 

than 

one 

rented 

Sons 

buying 

home 

farm 

Sons 

buying 

other 

than 

home 

farm 

Coming 

from 

other 

occupa- 

tions 

1 

• 

32 

4 

59 

16 

31 

7 

65 

4 

218 

The  total  number  of  transfers  of  title  to  farms  in  the  Sun 
Prairie  community  during  the  ten-year  period,  was  made  up  of 
218  instances  where  the  purchaser  actually  lived  on  the  farm 
purchased,  and  a few  cases  only  (less  than  a dozen)  where  the 
purchaser  simply  made  an  investment  and  did  not  live  on  the 
farm. 

It  will  appeal  to  many  as  a rather  curious  fact  that  so  few  of 
the  class  of  unrelated  tenants  purchase,  when  buying  farms,  the 
same  farm  which  they  have  rented.  On  the  other  hand  it  is 
quite  as  one  would  expect  that  sons  should  purchase  the  home 
farm  after  renting  it. 

The  practice  of  a son’s  renting  the  home  farm  is  evidently 
general;  but  it  is  offset  by  the  more  general  practice  of  sons 
working  at  home  for  wages  until  able  to  buy  a farm,  whereupon, 
often  with  the  father’s  help,  they  purchase  either  the  home 
farm  or  a neighboring  farm. 

It  is  worth  noticing  as  a piece  of  rural  sagacity  in  the  climb 
up  the  “agricultural  ladder,”  that  79  sons  who  purchased  farms 
kept  close  to  the  father  as  adviser  or  landlord,  and  presumably 
received  the  father’s  material  backing  when  it  came  to  purchase. 

Two  tenant  farms  owned  by  the  same  person  have  come  to  be 
known  as  “owner-producing  farms”:  one  of  them,  the  land- 

lord remaining  the  same,  produced  from  its  tenants  four  owners 
in  the  ten-year  periods ; the  other,  two  oAvners.  since  1913. 


Farm  Tenancy  9 


Table  IV. — -Peesent  Status  of  Farm  Tenants. 


Tenants 

Owners 

outside 

community 

Owners 

inside 

community 

Retired 

Other  oc- 
cupations 

Unknown 

Total 

143 

16 

89 

7 

14 

58 

Table  V. — Sizes  of  Farms  Rented  and  Purchased 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1 1909 

1 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

1 T-105 

T-105 

T-105 

T-105 

T-105 

2 

0-77 

0-77 

0-77 

0-77 

0-77 

0-77 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

3 

0-160 

0-160 

0-160 

0-160 

T-180 

T-180 

T-180 

T-180 

T-180 

T-160 

4 

0-140 

0-140 

0-140 

T-118 

T-160 

5 

0-m 

o-m 

O-m 

O-m 

O-m 

T-118 

T-118 

6 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

7 

0-93 

0-93 

T-80 

8 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-8() 

0-80 

0-80 

T-971 

f-97i 

T-971 

9 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 

T-155 

10 

0-80 

U-80 

0-80 

T-30 

T-30 

' T-80 

(Tob) 

(Tob) 

11 

0-77 

T-20 

T-20 

T-185 

T-185 

(Tob) 

(T  Ob) 

12 

0-8H 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-18i 

(Tob) 

13 

0-85 

0-85 

0-85 

0-85 

0-130 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

0-100 

O-lOO 

T-lOO 

T-lOO 

T-lOO 

14 

15 

\ 0-381 
(T-120 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

T-160 

16 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

T-lOO 

17 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

T-120 

T-120 

T-203 

18 

0-80 

0-80  1 

T-40 

T-40 

T-40 

^r-40 

T-40 

T-40 

T-40 

T-40 

19 

0-80 

0-80  i 

0-80 

0-80 

T-60 

(No  R 

ecord) 

T-60 

T-60 

T-60 

20 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

0-40 

T-120 

T-107 

21 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

0-96 

T-200 

T-200 

22 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

0-80 

T-105 

23 

0-20 

0-20 

0-20 

(At  holme  on  f 

ather’s 

T-60 

T-60 

T-180 

farm) 

24 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

0-120 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

T-80 

25 

0-72 

0-72 

0-72 

T-lOO  ^ 

26 

0-40 

0-40 

T-80 

T-80  ! 

T-8() 

T-80 

T-80 

(Tob)=  Tobacco  farm. 
O-120=Owns  120  acres 
T-105= Leases  105  acres 


The  total  number  of  different  tenants  who  leased  any  one  of  the 
500  farms  during  the  ten-year  period  is  327, — not  counting,  how- 
ever, the  ‘‘neighbor  tenants,”  who,  as  a matter  of  fact,  own  ad- 
joining farms  in  addition  to  leasing. 

Of  the  105  tenants  who  climbed  the  “agricultural  ladder” 
during  the  ten-year  period  and  became  owners,  16  purchased 
farms  outside  the  community  of  Sun  Prairie  (not  included  in 
Table  III)  and  89  purchased  farms  within  the  community.  Seven 
persons  who  were  tenants  outside  but  purchased  farms  inside 
the  community  are  not  counted  in  the  group  of  tenants  who 
climbed  the  “agricultural  ladder.” 

The  “retired”  tenants  are  those  who  have  ceased  farming  due 
to  advanced  age.  Those  tenants  who  entered  “other  occupa- 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


tions”  are  young  men  who  left  the  farm  for  the  town.  Six  of 
these,  however,  enlisted  as  soldiers.  The  tenants  of  ‘ ' unlmown  ’ ’ 
status  include  those  who  have  moved  out  of  the  county,  as  well 
as  those  who  have  died. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  by  economists  that  American  tenancy 
affords  an  opportunity  for  the  farmer  to  discover  the  size  of 
farm  best  adapted  to  his  capacity  before  actually  making  an  in- 
vestment in  land.  With  this  thought  in  mind  it  will  prove  of 
some  interest  to  look  over  Table  .V  of  26  > young  tenant- 
farmers,  unrelated  to  the  owners  of  their  tenant  farms,  who, 
during  the  ten-year  period,  became  owners  of  farms.  In  each 
case  the  farm  purchased  is  a totally  different  farm  from  the  one 
previously  leased. 

PART  III.— RETREAT  OP  FARM  OWNERS 


Table  VI. — General  Status  of  Retreating  Farmers 


Ownership 

Still  owning  some  farm,.*. 

78 

Total 

Not  owning  any  farm  now 

46 

124 

Residence 

Living  on  some  farm 

1 

Living  in  town 

46 

Moved  out  of  county 

7 

124 

Employment 

Still  actively  farming 

20 

Overseeing  or  helping ; 

41 

Tenant  or  hired  man 

7 

With  other  employment 

23 

With  no  employment 

33 

124 

Status  of  those  living’intown 

Managing  farm 

4 

With  other  employment 

14 

With  no  employment 

28 

46 

Men 

101 

Women 

23 

124 

Table  VII. — General  Status  of  Those  Still  Owning  Some  Farm 


Residence 

Living  on  own  farm 

61 

Total 

Living  in  town 

16 

Moved  out  of  county 

1 

78 

Employment 

Still  a.etivelr  fa.rming 

20 

Overseeing  or  helping 

37 

With  other  employment 

7 

With  no  employment 

14 

78 

Status  of  those  living  on 

own  farm 

Working  own  farm 

20 

Living  with  .son  tenant 

23 

Living  with  relative-tenant 

2 

Living  with  unrelated-tenant 

5 

Living  with  neighbor-tenant 

11 

61 

Farm  Tenancy 


11 


Table  VIII. — General  Status  of  Those  Not  Now  Owning  a Farm. 


10 

30 

6 

4 

16 

7 

19 

3 

6 

1 

Total 

46 

46 

10 

Living  in  to^vn 

Moved  out  of  county 

Overseeing  or  helping 

Status  of  those  living  on 

With  other  employment 

Tenant  or  hired  man 

With  no  employment 

Living  with  son-owner 

Tenants 

Hired  man 

Table  IX. — General  Status  of  Retreating  Women  Farmers 

Ownership 

Still  owning  original  farm 

18 

Total 

Sold  original  farm 

5 

23 

Residence 

Living  on  farm 

17 

Living  in  town 

6 

23 

St  11  owning;  living  on  farm 

16 

Still  owning;  living  in  town 

2 

Sold  farm;  living  on  farm 

1 

Sold  farm:  living  in  town 

4 

23 

Status  of  those  living  on 

farms 

Still  owning;  living  with  son-tenant. 

8 

Still  owning;  living  with  unrelated 

tenant 

2 

Still  owning:  living  with  neighoor- 

tenant 

6 

Sold  farm;  living  with  son-owner  . . . 

1 

17 

The  number  of  farm-owners  on  the  500  farms  who  started  their 
retreat  (retirement)  from  farming  during  the  ten-year  period 
was  124.  Old  age  came  to  some  farmers  unannounced 
and  suddenly,  and  retirement  was  forced  at  once.  In  other  cases 
the  sag  in  strength  was  gradual  and  retreat  took  place  inch  by 
inch.  The  fighting  spirit  seems  to  cling  to  the  land  and  to  work 
as  long  as  possible. 

This  constant  social  phenomenon  of  retreating  old  age  seems 
to  have  a fixed  relationship  to  the  advance  of  youth  upon  the 
land  and  to  the  “climbing  of  the  agricultural  ladder.”  The 
foregoing  tables  are  presented  in  the  hope  that  analyses  of  other 
constant  social  phenomena,  whose  relation  to  tenancy  is  as  yet 
unnoticed,  may  follow  and  may  throw  as  much  light  on  this 
important  problem  as  the  familiar  instance  of  the  retired 
farmer. 

The  table  of  women  owners  shows  that,  when  farm  land  comes 
under  the  control  of  women,  instead  of  leaving  the  country  they 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


tend  to  stick  to  the  farm  in  spite  of  many  handicaps,  keeping  the 
family  together,  leasing  farm  to  neighbors,  until  a son  is  old 
enough  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  management. 


Table  X. — Occupancy  of  Farms  of  Retreating  Owners 


1 

1918  1917 
! 

1916 

I9I5I 

1914 

1913 

1912  1911 

1 

1910 

1909 

Held  by  tenants; 

By  son  tnanag'ing' 

38 

34 

31 

29 

27 

24 

18 

14 

12 

3 

By  relative  manag'ing’ 

3 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

• Bv  Vinr6l3.tP(l  tPnf\Pt  rna.na.^ing’  

10 

11 

13 

13 

12 

10 

9 

7 

5 

3 

By  neiifhbor  managringr 

9 

10 

5 

6 

4 

4 

4 

2 

3 

2 

Held  by  purchasers: 

Py  son  mairij^.g’ing'  

14 

12 

12 

9 

6 

5 

5 

2 

1 

0 

By  relative  managing' 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

By  unrelated  person  managing,  formerly 
tenant  somewhere 

13 

15 

13 

10 

12 

12 

9 

4 

2 

1 

By  unrelated  person  managing,  formerly 
owner  somewhere  

14 

11 

11 

11 

9 

10 

9 

3 

0 

j 0 ' 

By  unrelated  person  managing,  from 
nt.hpr  p.mnlovfnftnt • . 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

O' 

By  unrelated  person  managing,  formerly 
neighbor 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 0 ■ 

By  unrelated  person  managing,  young 
man  on  first  farm 

9 

9 

4 

5 

5 

1 

0 

0 

0 

Held  by  original  owners: 

By  owner  returned 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

! 0 ' 

By  owner 

0 

8 

24 

32 

41 

46 

58 

79 

87 

96  < 

• — 1 

{ 

Evidently  in  any  considerable  community  there  will  be  found, 
in  any  one  year,  farmers  just  starting  their  retreat  from  farming, 
farmers  well  along  in  their  retreat,  and  farmers  whose  retreat 
may  be  said  to  be  completed.  In  the  community  of  Sun  Prairie  ? 
are  many  farmers  still  living  whose  retreat  was  either  complete  j 
or  in  process  prior  to  1909.  These  farmers  do  not  appear,  and  | 
are  not  considered,  in  the  present  study.  Only  those  farmers  j 
are  entered  in  the  tables  who  started  their  retreat  some  time  j 
during  the  ten-year  period.  All  of  these  are  considered,  whether 
they  finish  their  retreat  within  the  period  or  not. 

The  foregoing  table  tells  the  story,  year  by  year,  of  how  many 
of  the  original  farms  have  been  let  slip  out  of  the  working  grasp 
of  the  farm-owners  under  consideration  into  the  hands  of  tenants 
or  purchasers. 

In  1909,  only  8 farm-owners  began  their  retreat.  They 
started  the  retreat  by  letting  their  farms  to  tenants.  In  1910, 
(including  those  farmers  that  began  to  retreat  in  1909  whose 
farms  are  still  held  by  tenants  in  1910)  18  farm-owners  are  in 
full  retreat  by  letting  their  farms  to  tenants,  while  3 farm-owners 


Farm  Tenancy 


13 


began  their  retreat  by  selling  their  original  farms.  In  other  words, 
each  year  has  a record  of  the  number  of  farms  rented  or  sold,  as 
the  first  step  in  retreat,  combined  with  the  number  of  farms 
still  held  by  tenants  and  purchasers  from  the  preceding  years 
of  the  period.  A particular  farm  may  pass  obviously  from  the 
“held  by  tenants’’  class  to  the  “held  by  purchasers”  class,  or 
vice  versa. 


Table  XI. — Occupancy  of  Divided  Farms  of  Retreating  Owners 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Held  by 

1,  Son  tenant,  original  owner 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

3 

2. 

Three  unrelated  tenants 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3. 

Two  son  tenants 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4. 

Unrelated  tenant,  neighbor  purchaser 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5. 

Unrelated  tenant,  son  purchaser 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

6. 

Son  purchaser,  son  tenant 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7. 

Two  son  purchaser* 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

8. 

Son  purchaser,  original  owner 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

9. 

Neighbor  purchaser,  original  owner. . 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

10. 

Unrelated  purchaser,  son  purchaser. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

11. 

Neighbor  purchaser,  son  purchaser  . . 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Dividing  the  farm,  the  owner  retaining  a part,  while  quite  evi- 
dently a form  of  retreat,  is  not  a method  which  suggests  itself 
readily  to  a retreating  farmer,  even  when  a son  is  the  part-tenant 
or  part-owner.  The  difficulties  of  such  a situation  are  easily 
seen.  However,  it  is  interesting  to  notice  in  the  few  instances  of 
this  manner  of  retreat,  that  a son  or  a neighbor  now  and  then 
fulfills  the  happy  conditions. 

In  1909,  four  sons  held  a part  of  the  farms  as  tenants ; but  in 
1910  they  do  not  appear  in  the  table.  As  a matter  of  fact,  they 
changed  in  1910  to  the  class  of  tenants  holding  the  whole  farm, 
while  the  fathers  took  one  more  step  in  the  retreat.  It  is  plain 
that  the  status  of  any  particular  divided  farm  may  change  in 
like  manner  to  some  form  of  tenancy  or  purchase  of  the  whole 
farm. 

Divided  farms  must  not  be  confused  with  joint  tenant  farms 
or  jointly  owned  farms.  When  a farm  is  divided  it  becomes  two 
or  more  farms. 


14 


Wisconsin  Kesearch  Bulletin  44 


Table  XII. — Farms  Other  Than  Original  Held  by 
Retreating  Farmers 


1 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

I 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Held  as  owner: 

Second  farm,  selling  original 

11 

12 

10 

10 

5 

5 

6 

3 

0 

0 

Second  farm,  leasing  original 

4 

5 

6 

5 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

Third  farm,  leasing  other  two 

'1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0- 

0 

Held  as  tenant; 

Tenant  on  another  farm 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

5 

4 

2 

1 

0 

A distinct  step  in  the  retreat  of  some  farmers  is  the  purchase 
of  a second  farm,  either  much  smaller  than  the  original  farm  or 
else  lying  close  to  town,  often  even  within  the  limits  of  town; 
most  frequently  the  second  or  third  farm  combines  both  factors, 
smallness  and  nearness  to  town. 

In  cases  where  the  second  farm  is  in  the  open  country  and  of 
good  size,  it  is  usually  found  that  the  retreating  farmer  has 
leased  or  sold  the  original  farm  to  an  older  son  while  having  in 
mind  to  provide  a farm  for  a younger  son,  who  later  either 
leases  or  buys  the  second  farm.  A third  farm  for  a third  son  is 
not  unknown. 

When  a retreating  farmer  sells  out  and  becomes  a tenant  on 
another  farm  of  ordinary  size  in  the  open  country,  we  find  the 
cause  usually  in  some  form  of  break-up  of  the  family,  usually 
death  of  the  wife.  This  circumstance  is  the  beginning  of  a series 
of  steps  in  retreat — as  tenant,  boarding  with  the  owner’s  family, 
or  as  tobacco-farmer  living  in  town,  or  in  other  employment. 


Table  XIII. — ^^Residence  of  Retreating  Farmers 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Living  on  original  farm 

49 

55 

65 

67 

72 

77 

84 

96 

102 

105 

Living  in  town 

46 

38 

32 

30 

30 

27 

18 

11 

8 

3 

Moved  out  of  county 

7 

6 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

1 

1 

0 

Living  on  second  farm 

15 

17 

16 

15 

9 

7 

8 

5 

1 

0 

Living  on  third  farm 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Living  on  another  farm 

6 

7 

6 

7 

7 

4 

4 

2 

1 

0 

Farm  Tenancy 


15 


That  the  town  has  truthfully  been  considered  the  goal  of  the 
retreating  farmer,  this  study  will  more  or  less  justify.  The  spe- 
cial light,  however,  thrown  upon  the  ''retired  farmer”  shows 
him  as  moving  off  his  farm^by  degrees : giving  over  a part  of  his 
house  to  the  newcomer ; moving  into  a smaller  house  on  the  origi- 
nal farm;  going  to  live  with  a son  on  another  farm;  moving  on 
to  a smaller  farm  near  town;  settling  in  a house  in  town  sur- 
rounded by  a large  garden. 

The  tenant  system  appears  to  be  a cog  fitting  into  the 
notched  edges  of  the  veteran  farmer’s  retreat. 


Table  XIV. — Employment  of  Retreating  Farmers 


1918 

1 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913* 

1912 

1911 

'l910 

1909 

still  owniiie:  orig-inal  farm  : 

Working  original  farm 

4 

12 

26 

34 

42 

44 

58 

79 

87 

96 

Working  part  of  original  farm 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

3 

Overseeing  or  helping  on  original  farm. . . 

35 

34 

31 

29 

27 

27 

23 

17 

14 

8 

With  other  employment 

5 

7 

7 

6 

5 

5 

3 

2 

2 

0 

With  no  employment 

13 

8 

7 

7 

8 

5 

3 

3 

3 

0 

Working  second  farm 

3 

4 

5 

4 

3 

1 

1 

0 

0 1 

0 

Working  third  farm 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 ! 

0 

Overseeing  or  helping  on  second  farm  . . . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

0 

Having  sold  original  farm : 

1 

1 

Overseeing  or  helping  on  original  farm.. 
With  other  employment 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

17 

I 12 

11 

10 

11 

10 

8 

i 

1 

1 

Tenant  on  another  farm 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

5 

4 

2 

1 

0 

Hired  man  on  another  farm 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

With  no  employment 

20 

17 

14 

11 

9 

8 

6 

2 

2 

0 

Tenant  on  original  farm 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Working  second  farm ■ ’ 

10 

11 

9 

8 

3 

4 

6 

3 

0 

0 

Overseeing  or  helping  on  second  fai  m . . . 

1 

1 

1 

2 

,2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Totals 

124 

124 

124 

123 

122 

118 

117 

115 

113 

108 

That  the  retiring  farmer  gives  up  the  habit  of  work  only  upon 
compulsion  of  circumstances  is  evident  from  the  foregoing 
table  of  his  employment,  especially  from  that  part  of  the  table 
dealing  with  no  employment. 

It  cannot  fail  to  interest  the  person  who  thinks  upon  the  tenant 
problem  in  terms  of  human  relationships  to  find  that  the  veteran 
farmer,  though  sagging  in  his  physical  strength,  is  able  to  im- 
part, in  the  opportune  role  of  overseer  or  helper,  a portion  of 
the  wisdom  gained  by  his  years  of  farm  experience  to  young 
^men  in  the  natural  role  of  tenants. 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  44 


PART  IV.  SHIFTING  OF  TENANTS 
Table  XV. — Number  of  Shifts 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Of  all  tenants 

Of  all  tenants  shifting  within  the  com- 

30 

51 

59 

56 

47 

48 

47 

39 

38 

14 

429 

munity  

Of  all  tenants  shifting  to  and  from 

20 

31 

32 

38 

29 

24 

29 

20 

24 

6 

253 

other  communities 

10 

20 

27 

18 

18 

24 

18 

19 

14 

8 

176 

Of  tenants  related  to  owner 

7 

y 

18 

6 

5 

6 

7 

7 

7 

3 

75 

Of  tenants  unrelated  to  owner 

23 

42 

41 

50 

42 

42 

40 

32 

31  1 

11  1 

354 

Every  change  in  the  occupancy  of  a farm  home  involves  a 
shifting  of  each  of  two  families, — one  moving  off  the  farm  and 
another  moving  on.  To  estimate  the  degree  of  influence  a 
shifting  tenantry  has  upon  the  stability  of  a community  it  will 
be  necessary  to  count  the  coming  of  a family  to  a farm  as  one 
shift  and  the  going  of  a family  as  distinctly  another  shift.  For 
it  is  plain  that,  from  the  social  point  of  view,  pulling  up  the 
roots  of  a family  established  in  the  neighborhood  affects  every 
social  relationship  in  the  neighborhood  in  a peculiar  manner;  ^ 
and  the  planting  in  of  a new  family  is  a new  influence  requiring 
new  social  adjustments  at  every  point. 

A few  explanations  must  be  made  as  to  how  the  foregoing  table  ; 
of  shifts  is  made  up.  A farm  may  change  occupants  several  ( 
times  in  ten  years  and  yet  no  family  will  be  found  to  have  shifted  j 
on  or  off  the  farm.  This  circumstance  is 'illustrated  best  in  the  J 
case  of  a son,  brought  up  on  the  farm,  who  becomes  a tenant  on  | 
the  home  farm.  It  also  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a neighbor ' 
who  becomes  a tenant  on  an  adjoining  or  nearby  farm.  These 
cases  are  not  counted  as  shifts  in  the  table. 

When  a family  moves  on  to  a farm  as  tenant  and  wliile  occupy--  j 
ing  this  farm  rents  a second  farm  nearby,  its  coming  is  reck-;- 
oned  as  a shift  only  on  the  first  farm. 

When,  however,  a son,  after  once  leaving  his  father’s  farm, 
moving  on  to  another  farm  or  going  to  reside  elsewhere,  returns 
as  a tenant  on  the  home  farm,  his  coming  back  is  reckoned  as  a 
shift. 

If  a son  while  living  on,  but  not  renting,  his  father’s  homestead 
becomes  a tenant  on  a nearby  farm,  whether  the  second  farm  is 


Farm  Tenancy 


17 


owned  by  his  father  or  by  some  other  person,  no  shift  is  reck- 
oned as  taking  place.  However,  if  the  son  moves  on  to  the  sec- 
ond farm,  a shift  is  counted. 

Whenever  a son-in-law  comes  to  lease  his  father-in-law ’s 
farm,  a shift  occurs  and  is  counted. 

In  the  case  of  a joint  tenancy  on  one  farm  by  two  families,  one 
shift  for  each  family  is  counted  for  each  move. 

The  comparative  stability  of  related  tenants  suggests  that  there 
may  be  methods  as  yet  untried  which  would  render  the  unre- 
lated tenant  a more  stable  part  of  the  community. 


Table  XVI. — Number  of  Farms  on  Which  Shifts  Occurred 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1 

1910 

1909 

To- 

tal 

Number  of  different  farms  involved 
in  the  shifts; 

Of  all  tenants 

30 

42 

43 

42 

40 

39 

38 

31 

1 

32 

14 

142 

Of  tenants  shifting  within  the  com- 
munity   

20 

28 

24 

31 

27 

22 

27 

17 

20 

6 

120 

Of  tenants  shifting  to  and  fi-om  other 
communities 

10 

19 

23 

18 

17 

19 

15 

17 

14 

8 

89 

Of  related  tenazits 

7 

9 

13 

6 

5 

6 

7 

6 

7 

3 

51 

Of  u n rel  ated  te j i an  ts 

23 

33 

30 

36 

35 

33 

31 

25 

1 

25 

11 

119 

Neighbors  generally  know  the  farms  on  which  shifting  of 
tenants  occurs  with  frequency  and  regularity.  If  a community 
is  going  to  exercise  social  control  of  its  tenant  shifting,  so  as  to 
cut  down  the  cases  of  preventable  shifting,  it  will  carefully  ex- 
amine the  conditions  of  tenancy  on  the  farms  where  shifting 
is  chronic. 

It  will  be  recalled  from  Table  I that  254  farms  of  the  500  were 
at  some  time  occupied  by  tenants.  The  present  table  discloses 
the  significant  fact  that  only  142  of  these  farms  had  any  shifts 
of  tenants  during  the  ten-year  period.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
turns  out  that  17  farms  have  had  one  or  more  shifts  in  each 
of  five  or  more  years  of  the  ten-year  period,  and  may  well  be  con- 
sidered as  ‘‘chronic-shifting  farms.” 

Table  II  shows  that  the  total  number  of  “related  farms”  is 
125.  This  present  table  shows  that  only  51  of  these  farms  have 
had  shifts,  while  119  of  the  154  “unrelated  farms”  have  had 
shifts. 


18 


Wisconsin  Eesearch  Bulletin  44 


Table  XVII. — Number  of  Shifting  Tenants 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

j 

1912 

1911 

1910 

1909 

Total' 

All  tenants 

30 

41 

46 

42 

i 

40 

39 

38 

31 

32 

14 

231 

Tenants  shifting  within  the  communi- 
tv 

20 

27 

27 

31 

27 

1 

22 

27 

17 

20 

6 

146 

Tenants  shifting  to  and  from  other 
communities 

10 

19 

23 

18 

17 

19 

1-5 

17 

14 

8 

138 

53 

Roth  within  a.nd  withmit 

Related  tenants 

7 

9 

15 

6 

5 

6 

7 

: 

7 

"b 

59 

tin  related  tenants 

23 

32 

31 

36 

35 

....1 

33 

31 

25 

1 

25 

11 

179 

Pnth  T-pla,tpfl  a.nfi  nnrplated  . ... 

7 

1 

-••j 

! ' 

The  total  number  of  different  tenants  shifting  is  231  out  of  the 
327  tenants.  Against  the  5 ''chronic  shifters”  may  be  set  these 
96  tenants  who  do  not  shift  during  the  ten-year  period.  A tenant 
is  considered  a "chronic  shifter”  if  he  makes  one  shift  or  more 
in  each  of  five  or  more  years  of  the  ten-year  period.  The  chronic 
shifter  may  never,  obviously,  be  a tenant  on  a "chronic-shifting 
farm.” 

Table  XVIII. — Index  Numbers  of  Tenant  Shifting 


1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

1914 

1913 

1912 

1911 

1910 

19C 

—3 

46^ 

Numljer  of  farms 

493 

491 

480 

479 

476 

475 

472 

466 

465 

Number  of  possible  shifts 

493 

982 

970 

958 

952 

950 

944 

932 

930 

1 

Index  number  of  shifting 
tenancy 

Index  of  all  tenant  shifts 

30  493 

.51,  982 

59/970 

56  '958 

47  952 

48 '950 

47/944 

39 '932 

38/930 

' 14/4 

.0588 

.0519 

.0608 

.0584 

.0493 

.0505 

.0519 

.0418 

.0408 

.030 

Index  of  intracommhn- 

1 

ity  shifts 

20  493 

31  '982 

32/970 

38  ,''958 

29/952 

24  /'950 

29/944 

20  932 

24  930 

1 6'^ 

.0385 

.0315 

.0329 

.0396 

.0304 

.0252 

.0307 

.0215 

.0258 

.01^ 

Index  of  intercommun- 
ity shifts 

10  493 

20  982 

27  '970 

18  /9.58 

18  ^952 

24/950 

18/944 

19  932 

14  9.30 

1 8,4 

.0203 

.0203 

.0277 

.0187 

.0189 

.0252 

.0190 

.0203 

.0150 

.017 

\ 


The  number  of  possible  shifts  is  reckoned  as  follows : In  the 

years  1909  and  1918  only  one  shift  to  each  farm  is  considered  ^ 
possible.  In  1909,  a family  is  assumed  to  be  occupying  each 
farm  without  a shift  to  the  farm,  so  that  only  a shift  off  the  / 
farm  is  possible.  In  1918  a family  is  assumed  to  be  remaining  *^ 
on  each  farm  without  a shift  off,  so  that  onl}’  a shift  on  to  the  | 
farm  is  possible.  For  each  of  the  other  years  two  shifts  to  each/J 
farm  are  considered  possible,' — viz.,  one  off  and  one  on.  ^ 

The  index  number  of  tenant  shifting  for  any  particular  yearj 
is  obtained  by  dividing  the  number  of  actual  shifts  by  the  num-» 
her  of  shifts  possible  in  that  year.  For  the  purpose  of  compar-'  > 
ing  tenancy  in  different  communities  situated  in  various  parts^ 
of  the  United  States,  the  system  of  index  numbers  will  be  found® 
useful.  ® 


Research  Bulletin  45 


August,  1919 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm 
in  Wisconsin 

(Pontia  rapae  Linn.) 

H.  F.  WILSON 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Introduction  . » 

History  and  distribution 

Food  plants 

Nature  and  extent  of  injury 

Explanation  of  life  history  charts  for  1916 

First  generation 

Second  generation  

Third  generation  

Explanation  of  life  history  charts  for  1917 

First  generation  

Second  generation  

Third  generation  .......  

Field  notes  for  1917  

Seasonal  history 

Life  of  the  individual  

Natural  control  

Remedies  

Spraying  for  cabbage  \rorms  

Materials  to  use 

When  to  spray 

Spraying  experiments  for  cabbage  worms 


Page 

1 

1 

...  3 

3 

. . 6 

6 

7 

7 

. . 10 
. . 10 
. . 10 
, ..  10 
. . 13 

. . 14 

...  17 

. . 21 
. . 25 

. . 27 

. . 29 

,.  30 

..  31 


Research  Bulletin  45 


August,  1919 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in 
Wisconsin 

(Pontia  rapae  Linn.) 

H.  F.  WILSON:  R.  C.  PICKETT,  and  L.  G.  CENTNER 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in 
Wisconsin 

(Pontia  rapae  Linn.) 


The  growing  of  cabbage  is  one  of  Wisconsin’s  important  ag- 
ricultural industries  and  the  cabbage  root  maggot  and  im- 
ported cabbage  worm  are  the  most  serious  insect  enemies  of  the 
cabbage  crop. 

During  the  last  three  years,  the  imported  cabbage  worm  has 
caused  serious  losses  in  Wisconsin  and  many  questions  have 
been  received  concerning  the  danger  of  spraying  cabbage 
plants.  The  fact  that  many  of  the  canners  refuse  to  buy  or 
use  sprayed  cabbages  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  difficulties 
of  the  grower.  If  he  does  not  spray  the  worms  destroy  the 
plants,  and  if  he  does  spray  he  runs  the  risk  of  not  being  able 
to  sell  his  crop.  The  present  investigation  was  undertaken  to 
try  to  help  both  the  grower  and  the  canner  by  determining  the 
actual  facts  in  the  case. 

That  the  cabbage  worm  can  be  easily  controlled  and  also 
that  cabbage  can  be  sprayed  without  danger  to  the  consumer 
is  a fact  more  or  less  well  established.  The  general  public  is 
not  acquainted  with  these  facts,  however,  and  by  the  use  of 
suitable  illustrations  it  can  be  shown  that  it  is  profitable  to 
spray  cabbages  and  that  they  can  be  sprayed  without  danger 
to  the  consumer. 

Many  miscellaneous  observations  have  been  recorded  on  this 
insect  and  the  various  stages  have  been  described,  but  no  one 
seems  to  have  presented  a complete  study  of  its  life  cycle  and 
general  economic  importance. 

History  and  Distribution 

The  actual  date  and  method  of  introduction  of  this  insect 
into  North  America  are  unknown  but  the  first  definitely  recog- 


2 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


nized  specimens  were  taken  at  Quebec,  Canada,  in  1860,  by 
William  Couper.  J.  G.  Bolles,  1864,  concludes  that  the  insect 
must  have  been  present  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec  as  early  as 
1856  or  1857.  Scudder*  in  his  discussion  of  its  introduction 
draws  the  conclusion  that  it  could  not  have  been  in  this  coun- 
try previous  to  I860  or,  at  the  very  earliest,  in  1859 ; otherwise 
someone  would  have  noticed  it  because  of  ‘‘the  rapidity  with 
which  a single  pair  may  propagate  without  hindrance  from 
parasites.”  He  was  no  doubt  justified  in  this  conclusion  be- 
cause published  records  show  that  it  spread  over  large  areas 
of  territory  in  the  short  period  of  two  or  three  years.  Begin- 
ning in  1860  it  had  by  1863  spread  for  many  miles  in  all  direc- 
tions around  the  city  of  Quebec,  and  in  1864  it  was  found  90 
miles  south  of  Quebec  at  Murray  Bay.  In  1865  specimens  were 
collected  in  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  and  in  1869  near 
New  York. 

Working  westward  and  southward  it  had  spread  by  1872 
well  into  New  York  and  the  province  of  Ontario  in  Canada. 
It  appeared  in  North  Carolina  as  early  as  1870  and  in  Alabama 
in  1873,  but  these  later  importations  were  probably  brought 
about  by  carrying  in  individuals  other  than  those  of  the  main 
migration.  By  1871,  the  different  colonies  started  in  the  north- 
eastern United  States  had  mingled,  and  in  1872  Scudder  re- 
cords them  as  having  extended  in  a continuous  line  as  far 
south  as  Virginia  and  as  far  west  as  Ontario,  Canada,  and  the 
Allegheny  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania.  In  the  spring  of  1873 
a few  specimens  were  found  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  at  Chicago 
in  1875. 

P.  R.  Hoy  found  the  first  Wisconsin  specimens  at  Racine  in 
1879.  In  1881  specimens  were  collected  in  Texas  and  Nebraska 
and  records  show  that  it  was  more  or  less  continuous  from  Ala- 
bama to  Wisconsin,  the  species  having  been  previously  recorded 
as  well  established  in  Iowa  and  Missouri  in  1878.  A correspon- 
dent wrote  Scudder  that  it  had  reached  North  Dakota  in  1883 
and  Montana  in  1884,  but  he  believes  it  is  possible  that  in  the 
latter  case  the  correspondent  was  mistaken  in  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  specimens  at  hand.  It  was  .first  recorded  from  Colo- 


* For  a detailed  account  on  the  introduction  and  spread  of  Pieris  rapae  in 
North  America  from  1860-1886  see  article  by  Samuel  Scudder  in  the  Mem- 
oirs of  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  pp.  53-69. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


3 


rado  in  1886  by  David  Bruce,  who  collected  a number  of  speci- 
mens near  Denver  between  August  and  October. 

W.  G.  Wright,  1889,  gives  the  following  notes  on  Pieris  rapae 
from  California.  “In  May,  1883,  I captured  in  this  place  one 
male  of  that  species  (identified  by  George  D.  Hulst),  since  when 
I have  never  seen  another  specimen,  although  collecting  butter- 
flies every  year  and  usually  extensively.  That  sample  I have 
yet  in  my  cabinet.”  It  was  next  reported  from  southern  Cali- 
fornia by  Mr.  Wright  in  1896. 

Hillman  reported  seeing  it  in  Nevada  in  1897,  and 
Fletcher  reported  it  from  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia, 
in  1900.  It  is  now  a common  insect  about  the  cabbage  fields  of 
western  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Food  Plants 

Cabbage  and  cauliflower  are  the  main  food  plants  although 
a number  of  larvae  have  been  found  feeding  on  wild  mustard, 
radish  and  horseradish.  Other  writers  report  their  feeding  on 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  radish,  rutabaga,  horseradish,  mustard, 
mignonette,  nasturtium,  tropaeolum,  sea  rocket  (Cakile  ameri- 
cana?),  water  cress,  pepper  grass,  shepherd’s  purse,  sweet 
alyssum,  spider  plant,  stinkweed,  and  lettuce. 

Nature  and  Extent  of  Injury 

The  general  nature  of  the  damage  caused  by  the  cabbage 
worm  is  not  hard  to  determine,  but  few  growers  realize  the  ex- 
tent of  the  damage.  In  average  seasons  there  is  considerable 
loss,  although  the  crop  may  be  sufficiently  large  to  make  the 
actual  decrease  in  the  crop  of  little  economic  value.  However, 
in  seasons  when  climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  cabbage,  the  losses  occasioned  by  insect  damage  are 
enormous. 

Under  Wisconsin  conditions  early  varieties  of  cabbage  are 
not  damaged  to  any  great  extent  as  the  crop  is  harvested  be- 
fore the  worms  become  at  all  abundant.  On  the  ^ther  hand, 
late  varieties  are  set  out  about  the  time  when  the  eggs  of  the 
second  generation  are  being  deposited  in  greatest  numbers. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


The  eggs  are,  for  the  most  part,  deposited  on  the  outside  or 
under-surface  of  the  leaves  and  the  young  larvae  which  feed  ' 
there  have  a chance  to  do  considerable  damage  before  they  are  ■ 
noticed.  In  many  cases  they  destroy  the  leaf  surface  as  fast 
as  it  appears  and  prevent  the  formation  of  the  head.  This 
often  happens  in  the  case  of  cauliflower  plants,  which  seem  to 
have  a tendency  to  throw  all  the  growth  into  the  formation  of 
leaves  when  under  adverse  conditions.  Occasionally  the  injury 
is  sufficient  to  check  the  growth  of  the  plants  almost  completely. 
Tills  is  shown  in  a comparison  in  figure  1.  One  plant  was  not 


FIG.  I — INJURED  PLANT'S  CAN  BE  SAVED  BY  SPRAYING 

These  pictures  were  taken  22  days  after  the  plant  on  the  right  was  sprayed  once.  The  j 
sprayed  plant  free  of  worms  was  able  to  start  and  develop  a head.  t 


sprayed  at  all ; the  other  plant  was  sprayed  once  22  days  be-  i! 
fore  the  pictures  were  taken. 

With  the  mature  heads  the  damage  is  caused  by  the  larvae 
eating  the  leaves  and  cutting  tunnels  into  the  heads. 

As  a result  of  this  the  heads  are  soft  and  unfilled  and  the  i 


filthy  green  castings  which  the  worms  leave  behind  them 


make  the  heads  unsightly  and  undesirable  for  use. 

A fact  which  seems  not  to  have  been  noted  before  is  the 
great  damage  caused  by  the  eating  away  of  the  terminal  por- 
tions of  the  leaves.  Each  leaf  is  so  developed  that  its  point 
overlaps  and  adheres  to  the  leaf  opposite  forming  what  we 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


5 


have  designated  as  a friction  cap.  Referring  to  ngure  2, 
one  may  notice  that  the  head  is  formed  from  the  inside  and 
that  the  earliest  leaves  form  a shell  into  which  the  iater  growth 
is  forced  in  a hard  compact  mass.  If  for  an\'  reason  the  devel- 
opment of  this  shell  or  casing  is  prevented,  then  the  leaves 
grow  straight  outward  and  up  and  the  head  is  immature  and 
soft,  as  shown.  The  cabbage  worms  seem  to  prefer  the  outer 
edges  of  the  leaves  and  in  eating  away  those  parts  destroy  the 
fold  or  friction  cap  which  forms  the  shell. 


FIG.  2.— DESTRUCTION  OF  FRICTION  CAP  PREVENTS  FORMATION  OP  THE 

HEAD 

When  the  tips  of  the  leaves  are  eaten  away  the  friction  cap  is  destroyed  and  a compact 
solid  head  cannot  be  formed. 


Frequently  the  mature  heads  are  not  attacked  until  late  in 
August  or  September  (figure  3)  at  which  time  the  worms  eat 
away  portions  of  the  heads  and  tunnel  for  short  distances  di- 
rectly into  them.  In  other  cases  they  will  eat  through  one  or 
more  leaves  and  work  downward  to  the  leaf  base,  where  they 
continue  to  feed  and  leave  their  castings.  In  practically  every 
case  heads  thus  attacked  are  unfit  for  market. 

In  making  observations  during  the  last  of  August  and  the 
first  of  September,  1917,  a large  field  of  cabbage  was  counted 
in  which  there  were  3,211  plants.  The  cabbage  worm  had 
damaged  917  heads  to  such  an  extent  that  they  were  totally 
unmarketable.  Others  were  more  or  less  damaged  to  an  extent 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


of  35  per  cent  by  the  cabbage  worm.  In  many  home  gardens  in 
and  about  Madison  not  a single  head  was  fit  for  table  use. 

Explanation  of  Life  History  Charts  for  1916 

In  all,  105  larvae  were  started  but  a good  many  of  these 
died  and  their  numbers  are  omitted.  In  obtaining  the  data, 
butterfiies  were  reared,  or  netted  and  caged,  and  the  date  of 


FIG.  3— ONE  application  OP  SPRAY  WOULD  HAVE  MADE  THIS  HEAD 

MARKETABLE 

Many  heads  not  attacked  early  in  the  season  are  destroyed  after  the  head  is  formed 
by  worms  tunnelling  through  the  outer  leaves 

egg  deposition  noted.  In  all  cases,  daily  observations  were 
made  and  cotton  was  placed  about  the  base  of  the  plants  to 
catch  cast  skins  if  any  dropped  down. 

FIRST  GENERATION 

The  larvae  included  under  numbers  1 to  13  represent  the  be- 
ginning of  the  first  generation.  The  first  butterfly  emerged 
on  April  16,  but  they  did  not  appear  in  numbers  until  after 
May  1.  The  first  eggs  were  secured  in  the  field  on  May  6,  the 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


7 


date  on  which  the  rearing  cages  were  started.  A second  series 
was  started  May  9 and  a third  series  on  May  31. 

While  the  eggsdn  the  last  series  were  laid  25  days  after  those 
of  the  first  series,  the  butterflies  of  the  last  series  began  to 
emerge  only  10  days  later  Than  those  of  the  first.  The  average 
period  of  development  for  the  first  generation  was  54.7  days. 
By  June  25  all  butterflies  had  disappeared  from  the  field  but 
by  July  1 they  were  again  emerging  and  on  July  10  were  quite 
abundant.  The  butterflies  in  the  insectary  began  to  emerge  at 
practically  the  same  time.  July  8 the  first  butterfly  from  the 
May  31  series  emerged,  and  the  last  one  of  this  series  emerged 
on  July  16,  from  an  egg  deposited  May  30. 


SECOND  GENERATION 

The  exact  date  of  deposition  is  not  known  for  eggs  46  to  54 
but  the  dates  on  the  remainder  are  definite  and  the  incubation 
period  may  be  safely  applied  to  the  others.  The  average  num- 
ber of  days  required  for  the  transformation  of  this  brood  was 
26  days,  or  less  than  half  the  period  required  for  the  first  gen- 
eration. 

A second  series  was  also  started  for  this  generation  on  July 
27,  the  average  period  required  for  maturity  of  the  individuals 
being  29  days.  Adults  of  this  generation  began  to  emerge  in 
the  insectary  by  July  31  but  they  did  not  appear  abundant  in 
the  field  until  a few  days  later.  At  this  time  we  had  difficulty 
in  the  breeding  cages  and  were  unable  to  get  eggs  except  by 
following  butterflies  in  the  field. 


THIRD  GENERATION 

August  14  the  third  generation  was  started  but  only  six  of 
the  eggs  were  carried  through  to  the  chrysalis  stage.  The  av- 
erage period  for  development  in  this  generation  from  egg  to 
pupa  was  25Y2  days.  None  of  the  adults  emerged  in  the  fall 
of  1916  and  for  some,  reason  the  chrysalids  died  during  the  fol- 
lowing winter. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


Table  I. — Duration  of  Life  Stages  op  the  Common  Cabbage 
Worm — First  Generation  : 1916 


No. 

Larva 

Pupa 

Adult 

Eg'ff 

Hatched 

Moltl 

Molt  2 

Molt  3 

Molt  4 

Molt  5 

Molt  6 

1 

May 

6 

May 

11 

May  20 

May  26 

May  28 

June  1 

June  12 

June  27 

2 

May 

6 

May 

11 

May  20 

May  24 

May  29 

June  4 

June  ^5 

June  30 

3 

6 

Ma,v 

11 

May  23 

May  26 

June  1 

4 

May 

6 

May  12 

May  23 

May  27 

June  1 

June  11 

June  20 

July  2 

5 

May 

6 

May  13 

May  23 

May  26 

May  30 

June  4 

June  14 

June  30 

6 

May 

6 

May  12 

May  24 

May  28 

June  1 

June  9 

June  18 

June  30 

7 

May 

6 

May 

12 

May  24 

May  26 

May  31 

June  8 

June  18 

July  1 

3 

May 

6 

May 

13 

May  24 

May  27 

June  2 

June  11 

June  14 

July  2 

9 

May 

6 

May 

12 

May  24 

June  1 

June  4 

June  10 

June  17 

July  1 

10 

May 

? 

May  30 

June  4 

June  12 

June  14 

June  21 

June  30 

« 

11 

May 

9 

May 

18 

May  26 

May  31 

June  4 

June  10 

June  21 

July  1 

12 

May 

9 

May 

18 

May  24 

May  27 

June  1 

June  11 

June  18 

July  2 

13 

May 

9 

May 

18 

May  25 

May  28 

June  2 

June  11 

June  17 

July  2 

14 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  13 

June  19 

June  27 

July  1 

July  2 

July  16 

15 

May 

30 

June 

5 

June  14 

lune  20 

June  25 

June  30 

July  1 

July  15 

16 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  17 

June  22 

June  27 

July  2 

July  10 

17 

May 

31 

June 

5 

June  13 

June  20 

June  22 

J une  27 

July  2 

July  10 

18 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  20 

June  25 

J une  27 

July  2 

July  12 

19 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  20 

June  25 

June  27 

July  2 

July  10 

20 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  13 

June  17 

June  20 

June  25 

June  50 

.Tuly  8 

21 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  20 

June  25 

June  27 

July  2 

July  10 

22 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  20 

June  25 

June  27 

July  2 

July  10 

23 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  14 

June  20 

June  25 

June  27 

July  6 

July  15 

24 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  13 

June  17 

June  20 

June  27 

June  30 

July  10 

25 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  12 

June  16 

June  20 

June  25 

June  30 

July  8 

26 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  16 

June  20 

June  22 

June  30 

July  9 

27 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  15 

June  20 

.Tune  25 

June  30 

July  8 

28 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  15 

June  20 

June  25 

June  30 

July  10 

29 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  15 

June  20 

June  25 

June  30 

July  10 

30 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  13 

June  18 

June  21 

June  27 

July  2 

July  10 

31 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  15 

June  20 

June  25 

July  2 

July  10 

32 

■ May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  17 

.Tune  20 

June  25 

July  2 

July  10 

33 

May 

31 

June 

6 

June  11 

June  17 

.Tune  20 

June  25 

June  30 

July  10 

* Parasitized  by  A.  g-lomeratus.  Parasites  emergred  July  6. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


9 


Table  II Duration  of  Life  Stages  of  the  Common  Cabbage 

Worm — Second  Generation:  1916 


No. 

Larva 

Pupa 

Adult 

Egg 

Hatched 

Molt  1 

Molt  2 

Molt  3 

Molt  4 

Molt  5 

Molt  6 

34 

July  5 

July  13 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

July  24 

July  28 

Aug.  3 

35 

July  5 

July  10 

July  14 

July  16 

July  19 

July  22 

July  31 

Aug.  3 

36 

July  5 

July  11 

July  13 

July  1.0 

July  18 

July  21 

July  25 

Aug.  3 

3< 

July  5 

July  11 

July  15 

July  18 

July  21 

July  24 

July  26 

Aug.  4 

38 

July  5 

July  11 

July  13 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

July  25 

July  31 

39 

July  5 

July  12 

July  19 

July  21 

July  24 

July  26 

July  31 

Aug.  7 

40  I 

July  12 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

July  24 

July  25 

July  28 

Aug.  6 

41  ! 

July  12 

July  16 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  24 

July  26 

Aug.  3 

42 

July  12 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

! July  24 

July  28 

Aug.  4 

43 

July  12 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

July  22 

: July  24 

July  26 

Aug.  3 

44 

July  12 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

! July  25 

July  27 

Aug.  3 

45 

July  12 

July  12 

July  14 

July  16 

July  18 

July  19 

July  24 

July  30 

46 

July  1* 

July  13 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

! July  22 

July  26 

Aug.  2 

47 

July  12 

July  13 

July  16 

July  18 

July  21 

; July  24 

July  26 

Aug.  3 

48 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  17 

July  18 

July  19 

1 July  21 

July  25 

July  31 

49 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  24 

July  26 

Aug.  3 

50 

July  i2* 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  22 

1 July  24 

July  27 

Aug.  3 

51 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  17 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  24 

July  31 

52 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  22 

July  26 

Aug.  3 

53 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  16 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  25 

July  31 

54 

July  12* 

July  15 

July  18 

July  19 

July  21 

July  22 

July  25 

Aug.  1 

55 

July  14 

July  18 

. July  21 

July  24 

July  25 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  6 

56 

July  14 

July  18 

July  21 

July  22 

July  24 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  6 

57 

July  27 

July  30 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  5 

Aug.  8 

Aug.  10 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  26 

58  i 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  4 

Aug.  6 

Aug.  8 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  26 

59  j 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  4 

Aug.  6 

Aug.  8 ! 

! Aug.  14 

Aug.  17 

Aug.  24 

60  1 
61  1 

July  27 
July  27 

July  31 
July  31 

Aug.  4 
Aug.  4 

Aug.  6 
Aug.  6 

Aug.  8 1 
Aug.  8 

( Aug.  9 
Aug.  15 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  26 

62 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  4 

Aug.  8 

Aug.  9 

Aug.  15 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  26 

63 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  4 

Aug.  6 

Aug.  8 

Aug.  9 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  23 

-^1 

July  27 

July  31 

Aug.  4 

Aug.  8 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  16 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  29 

♦About  July  10  to  July  12. 


Table  III. — Duration  of  Life  Stages  of  the  Common  Cabbage 
Worm — Third  Generation:  1916 


No. 

Larva 

Pupa 

Adult 

Egg 

Hatched 

Molt  1 

Molt  2 

Molt  3 

Molt  4 

j Molt  5 

Molt  6 

65 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  24 

Aug.  28 

* 

! 

66 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  17 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  29 

j Sept.  8 

67 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  17 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  22 

* 

68 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  23 

1 Died 

69 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  24 

Aug.  28 

Aug.  31 

I Sept.  9 

70 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  17 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  23 

* 

71 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  29 

1 Sept.  9 

72 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  24 

Aug.  27 

73 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  30 

74 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  24 

Aug.  28 

* 

75 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  24 

Aug.  28 

* 

76 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  23. 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  29 

Sept.  7 

77 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  26 

Aug.  28 

78 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  19 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  28 

* 

79 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  18 

Aug.  20 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  26 

Aug*.  29 

Sept.  8 

Preserved  in  alcohol  for  study  immediately  after  casting  molt. 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


Explanation  of  Life  History  Tables  for  1917 

FIRST  GENERATION 

The  development  of  the  first  generation  was  not  carried  on 
in  the  insectary  due  to  the  fact  that  we  could  find  no  eggs  in 
the  field  and  adults  placed  in  breeding  cages  died  without  de- 
positing. Owing  to  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  there  were 
only  a few  days  on  which  the  adults  could  be  seen  flying. 
However,  larvae  were  gathered  in  the  field  about  the  middle 
of  June  and  placed  in  cages  where  the  time  of  pupation  and 
emergence  could  be  noted. 

We  observed  the  first  adults  flying  in  the  fields  on  May  13, 
and  the  first  emergence  records  of  adults  from  larvae  and 
chrysalids  obtained  in  the  field  was  July  2.  This  would  indi- 
cate an  approximate  period  of  about  7 weeks  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  first  generation  from  the  time  of  egg  laying  until  • 
the  emergence  of  the  adult.  The  pupal  stage  varied  from  7 to  = 
11  days,  with  an  average  of  9%  days.  < 

SECOND  GENERATION  ' 

We  used  30  individuals  for  determing  the  length  of  the  sec- 
ond generation.  Of  these  13  reached  maturity  while  the  re-  ' 
mainder  died  or  disappeared  from  the  plants.  The  average  . 
length  of  the  egg  stage  was  4 days,  of  the  larval  stage  lSy2  ; 
days,  and  the  pupal  stage  IIV2  days,  making  an  average  of  j 
34  days  from  time  of  egg  deposition  to  the  emergence  of  the  ^ 
adult.  i! 


THIRD_GENERATION 

Twenty-three  individuals  were  used  to  determine  the  length 
of  the  third  generation.  Of  these  only  eight  pupated,  the  re- 
mainder dying  from  flacherie  and  other  causes.  The  devel- 
opment of  this  generation  was  very  irregular  and  prolonged, 
owing  to  unfavorable  climatic  conditions.  The  average  length 
of  the  egg  stage  was  5%  days,  the  larval  stage  341/2  days,  and 
from  egg  to  time  of  pupation  40%  days.  None  of  the  adults 
emerged  from  these  chrysalids  until  the  following  spring. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


11 


Table  IV.  — Dukation  op  Life  Stages  of  the  Common  Cabbage 
Worm — Second  Generation:  1917 


Larva 


No. 

Egg 

Hatched 

Molt  1 

1 

July  8 

July  12 

■ 2 

July  8 

July  12  • 

July  17 

3 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

4 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

5 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

6 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

7 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

8 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

9 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

10 

July  8 

July  12 

July  * 

11 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

12 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

13 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

14 

July  8 

July  12 

+ 

15 

July  8 

July  12 

+ 

16 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

17 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

18 

July  8 

July  12 

+ 

19 

July  8 

July  12 

+ 

22 

July  8 

July  12 

+ 

23 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

24 

July  8 

July  12 

* 

25 

July  8 

July  12 

July  17 

26 

July  8 

July  12 

July  18 

27 

July  8 

July  12 

* 

28 

July  ? 

July  17 

+ 

29 

July  14 

July  18 

30 

? 

July  18 

July  24 

31 

9 

July  16 

July  24 

32 

July  ? 

July  18 

July  21 

Molt  1 Molt  2 Molt  3 Molt  4 


July  20 
July  20 
July  20 

July  20 
July  20 
July  20 
July  21 


July  20 
July  23 
July  23 


July  21 
July  21 


July  21 


July  21 
July  23 


July  21 
July  26 

July  24 


July  23 
July  23 
July  23 


July  23 
July  24 
July  23 
July  23 


+ 

July  24 
July  25 


July  23 
July  23 


July  24 


July  24 
July  25 


July  24 
July  27 


July  24 
July  24 
July  24 


July  27 


July  26 
July  25 


July  27 
July  27 


July  <i5 
July  25 


July  27 


July  27 
July  28 


July  30 


Pupa 


Molt  5 


July  30 
July  30 
July  30 


July  31 


July  30 
July  30 


July  31 
July  31 


July  30 
July  30 


Aug-ust  1 


July  30 
July  31 


Adult 


Molt  6 


August  7 
August  5 
August  7 


August  13 


August  7 
August  5 


August  13 
August  13 


August  10 
August  10 


August  14 


August  7 
August  13 


+ Disappeared. 
* Dead. 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


Table  V. — Duration  of  Life  Stages  of  the  Common  Cabbage 
Worm — Third  Generation:  1917 


No. 

Larva 

Pupa 

Adult 

Eg'g’ 

Hatched 

Molt  1 

Molt  2 

Molts 

Molt  4 

Molt  5 

Molt  6 

1 

Aug-.  8 

Augr.  15 

Aug-.  19 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  28 

Aug.  31 

Sept.  28 

2 

Aug.  8 

Aug-.  14 

Aug-.  18 

Augr.  20 

Aug.  24 

* 

3 

Augr.  8 

Aug-.  14 

Augr.  18 

Aug-.  20 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  27 

Sept.  5 

4 

Auff.  8 

Augr.  14 

% 

5 

Aug-.  8 

Aug-.  14 

Augr.  19 

Aug-.  24 

Aug.  31 

Sept.  6 

Sept.  19 

6 

Aug-.  8 

* 

7 

Aug-.  8 

8 

Aug-.  8 

Aug-.  14 

Aug-.  19 

Aug-.  22 

Aug.  25 

Sept.  2 

Sept.  17 

9 

Aug-.  8 

* 

10 

Aug-.  8 

Aug-.  14 

i 

11 

Aug.  8 

* 

12 

Aug-.  8 

* 

13 

Au&.  8 

% 

14 

Augr.  8 

Aug-.  14  ' 

Aug-.  18 

Aug-.  20 

Aug.  22 

Aug.  27 

Sept.  19 

15 

Aug-.  8 

Aug-.  14 

Aug-.  18 

Aug-.  20 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  27 

Sept.  15 

16 

Aug-.  16 

Augr.  21 

% 

17 

Aug-.  16 

Aug-.  21 

Aug-.  24 

Sept.  2 

Sept.  10 

Sept.  i7 

i 1 . 

% 

18 

Aug-.  16 

Au^.  21 

* 

19 

Aug-.  16 

Augr.  21 

* 

20 

Aug-.  16 

21 

Aug-.  16 

Aug-.  21 

Aug-.  24 

Aug.  27 

Sept,  i 

Sept.  6 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  8 

Sept.  28 
* 

22 

Aug-.  16 

Aug-.  21 

Aug-.  24 

Aug-.  27 

Sept.  2 

23 

Aug-.  16 

Augr.  21 

Augr.  24 

Aug.  27 

Sept.  2 

Sept.  25 

24 

Augr.  23 

Aug-.  * 

25 

Aug-.  23 

Aug.  31 

* 

26 

Aug-.  23 

Augr.  31 

27 

Aug-.  23 

Aug-.  31 

Sept.  5 
Sept.  5 
* 

Sept.  14 

Sept,  is 

Oct.  1 

* 

28 

Aug-.  23 

Aug-.  31 

29 

Aug-.  23 

Aug-.  31 

30 

Aug-.  23 

Aug-.  31 

Sept.  6 

* 

31 

Aug-.  23 

Aug-.  * 

32 

Augr.  23 

33 

Aug.  23 

Aug.  31 

Sept.  5 

Sept.  14 

* 

*Dead. 


Table  VI. — Length  op  Stages,  1916-1917— First  Generation 


* Conclusions  from  data  gathered  in  field. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


13 


Table  VII Length  of  Stages,  1916-1917— Second  Generation 


Stag'es 

i 

j 

1916 

191' 

j 

i Maxi-j. 
j mum 

1 

Mini- 

mum 

Aver- 

ag’e 

Maxi- 

mum 

Mini- 

mum 

Aver- 

ag’e 

Ei'ff 

.3 

5 

4 

4 

4 

1st  instar 

1 

.3 

6 

5 

51 

2nd  instar 

,...i  3 

1 

2 

5 

3 

31 

.3rd  instar 

1 

2 

4 

1 

H 

4th  instar 

1 

2.^ 

4 

1 

'dk 

5th  instar 

2 

3i 

6 

3 

H 

Larva 

9 

'121 

30 

18 

18i 

Pupa 

3 

7 

14 

6 

Hi 

Eufi  to  adult 

22 

26 

37 

28 

34 

Table  VIII.— Length  of  Stages,  1916-1917 — Third  Generation 


Stages 

1916 

1917 

Maxi- 

mum 

Mini- 

mum 

Aver- 

age 

Maxi- 

mum 

Mini- 

mum 

Aver- 

age 

Ega 

•5 

3 

4i 

7 

5 

5i 

1st  instar 

4 

1. 

2 

5 

3 

4 

2nd  instar 

4 

1 

H 

5 

2 

3 

3rd  instar 

5 

1 

3 

7 

2 

4i 

4th  instar 

4 

2 

3 

9 

4 

6 

.5th  instar 

11 

9 

10 

23 

9 

17i 

Larva 

22 

20 

21 

44 

22 

34i 

Egg  to  pupation 

26 

24 

25 

51 

28 

404 

Field  Notes  for  1917 

The. spring  of  1917  was  rather  uniformly  cold.  During  the 
month  of  April  there  was  an  average  daily  deficiency  of  2.1° 
Fahrenheit  below  the  normal.  The  first  week  of  May  was  also 
quite  cool,  but;  about  the  latter  part  of  the  second  week  the 
weather  became  much  warmer. 

On  May  13  the  first  butterflies  from  overwintering  chrysa- 
lids appeared  in  the  field.  On  the  forenoon  of  May  16  the 
adults  were  flying  rather  abundantly,  but  in  the  afternoon  a 
strong  wind  came  up  and  only  a few  could  be  seen.  The  fol- 
lowing days  were  also  mostly  windy  and  rainy  so  that  only 
occasional  butterflies  could  be  seen. 

Although  a great  many  cabbage  plants  were  examined  at 
various  times  no  eggs  could  be  found.  Later  observations 
show  that  the  eggs  had  been  only  very  sparsely  deposited  on 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


cabbage  but  abundantly  on  wild  mustard,  horseradish,  and 
garden  radish.  This  was  probable  due  to  the  fact  that  the  un- 
favorable weather  conditions,  prevented  the  majority  of  butter- 
flies from  reaching  the  cabbage  plants,  forcing  them  to  deposit 
eggs  on  wild  plants.  Or,  possibly  the  adults  of  the  flrst  gener- 
ation prefer  to  deposit  on  wild  plants. 

From  June  15  to  June  19  a total  of  about  2,000  cabbage  and 
cauliflower  plants  were  carefully  examined  for  the  presence  of 
larvae.  An  average  of  about  1 larva  to  every  60  plants  was 
found  and  never  more  than  2 to  a single  plant.  Most  of  the 
larvae  were  nearly  full-grown  although  some  were  only  a third 
to  a half  grown.  One  chrysalid  was  found  on  June  19. 

During  the  latter  part  of  June  and  the  first  few  days  of  July 
no  adults  were  seen  in  the  field,  but  on  July  4, the  adults  of 
the  first  generation  began  to  appear  and  by  July  15  were 
quite  numerous.  On  the  same  date  there  were  a few  recently 
hatched  larvae  found  on  plants  in  the  experimental  plots. 

During  the  latter  part  of  July  only  an  occasional  adult  could 
•be  seen  flying  about,  but  on  August  5 the  adults  of  the  second 
generation  began  to  appear  and  the  next  day  they  were  flying 
in  large  numbers  and  there  were  many  eggs  on  the  plants. 

The  latter  part  of  the  summer  was  more  or  less  cool  and  there- 
fore the  development  of  the  third  generation  was  irregular.  When- 
ever the  weather  was  warm  enough  during  September,  adults 
could  be  seen  feeding  and  laying  eggs.  About  the  middle  of 
the  month,  the  weather  moderated  somewhat  and  adults  be- 
came quite  abundant.  None  of  these,  however,  were  newly 
emerged,  as  their  wings  were  badly  frayed  and  we  believe  they 
had  been  in  hiding  during  the  colder  weather.  We  believe 
that  no  butterflies  emerge  from  the  chrysalids  of  the  third 
generation  until  the  next  spring. 

As  late  as  the  first  part  of  October  large  numbers  of  eggs 
and  young  larvae,  2 or  3mm.  in  length,  could  be  found  on  the 
plants,  but  as  far  as  could  be'  determined  most  of  these  eggs 
did  not  hatch  and  none  of  the  small  larvae  ever  matured.  An 
occasional  adult  was  seen  in  the  field  even  as  late  as  October  15. 

Seasonal  History 

The  published  records  concerning  this- insect  indicate  that 
it  is  capable  of  continuous  development,  the  number  of  gener- 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


15 


ations  within  a year  being  controlled  by  climatic  conditions. 
Our  observations  show  quite  clearly  that  only  three  generations 
a year  may  normally  occur  in  the  northern  United  States.* 

At  Madison,  where  the^  life  history  studies  were  carried  on, 
larvae  just  hatched  to  full-grown  may  be  found  from  May  until 
after  freezing  weather  begins  in  the  fall.  Little  or  no  develop- 
ment takes  place  after  the  temperatures  get  below  60°  Fahren- 
heit in  the  fall  and  all  larvae  that  have  not  changed  into  chrys- 
alids by  November  1 perish. 

A definite  relationship  between  weather  conditions  and  the 
development  of  this  insect  is  clearly  evident,  as  shown  by  the 
accompanying  chart  and  life  history  tables. 

In  Table  1 we  have  given  the  mean  temperatures  for  the 
growing  season  of  1916  and  1917.  Except  for  the  month  of 
June  there  was  a considerable  difference  in  temperatures  be- 
tween the  two  seasons.  Our  breeding  records  show  that  growth 
was  much  more  rapid  in  1916  than  in  1917  but  in  each  season  we 
secured  only  three  complete  generations. 

We  also  found  that  chrysalids  in  protected  spots  on  the 
sunny  side  of  a building  develop  a month  earlier  in  the  spring 
than  those  in  shaded  places.  This  is  probably  the  reason  for 
the  emergence  of  a few  individuals  early  in  the  season. 

In  1916  few  butterflies  were  to  be  seen  in  the  field  until 
about  the  first  week  of  May.  In  1917  it  was  the  third  week  in 
May.  In  1916  the  first  eggs  were  found  May  6.  Temperature 
records  show  some  relationship  here  in  that  during  the  last 
half  of  April,  1916,  it  was  generally  warmer  than  during  the 
same  period  in  1917.  In  May,  1916,  the  temperature  reached 
58°  on  the  second  and  rose  to  77°  on  the  seventh.  In  1917  a 
temperature  of  60°  was  reached  only  three  times  up  to  May  13. 
On  May  14  it  rose  from  62°  to  72°  and  increased  to  82°  on  May 
17.  These  increased  temperatures  being  so  close  to  the  main 
emergence  of  butterflies  and  the  beginning  of  egg  deposition  in- 
dicate that  emergence  and  egg  deposition  are  very  closely  cor- 
related with  temperature  conditions. 


* Several  writers  have  indicated  the  time  required  for  the  development  of 
the  different  stages  but  we  cannot  find  that  any  one  has  previously  given  a 
complete  record  of  the  development  of  this  insect.  We  are,  therefore,  unable 
to  draw  any  definite  conclusions  regarding  the  development  of  this  insect  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States. 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


Table  IX- — Mean  Maximum,  Mean  Minimum,  and  Mean  Monthly 
Temperatures  for  1916  and  1917 


1 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Augr.  1 

Sept. 

Oct. 

(1916 

Mean  maximum  temperatures 

H917 

53.8 

66.4 

69.9 

88.9 

82.4 

68.3 

58.4 

50.5 

60.7 

69.6 

80.7 

76.3 

68.8 

47.1 

(1916 

36.8 

48.2 

53.6 

67.3 

63.2 

50.6 

40.0 

Mean  minimum  temperature  •< 

(1917 

34.3 

43.4 

54.0 

63.8 

57.8 

51.2 

32.9 

(1916 

Mean  monthly  temperature  S 

/1917 

45.3 

57.3 

61.8 

78.1 

72.8 

59.4 

49.2 

42.4 

52.0 

61.8 

71.8 

67.0 

60.0 

40.0 

It  is  still  to  be  noted  that  in  1916  July  was  mucli  warmer 
than  in  1917  and  in  our  breeding  cages  the  second  generation 
of  that  year  matured  in  an  average  of  23  days  while  in  1917  an 
average  nf  34  days  was  required.  In  the  third  generation  the 
larvae  matured  in  an  average  of  28.58  days  in  1916  and  40.5  days 
in  1917. 

Following  the  spring  generation  an  entire  lack  of  butterflies 
is  noticed  for  a period  of  a week  or  ten  days.  However,  early 
in  July  the  second  generation  appears  and  the  emergence  of 
butterflies  is  more  or  less  continuous  the  rest  of  the  season. 
Due  to  better  food  and  warmer  temperature,  the  second  gener- 
ation makes  more  rapid  progress  than  the  flrst.  The  different 
stages  occur  in  quick  succession  and  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  is  sufficient  time  for  a thriving  larva  to  mature  and  pu- 
pate. The  pupal  period  is  correspondingly  short,  requiring 
only  from  six  to  nine  days  for  completion. 

While  the  emergence,  of  butterflies  in  the  summer  is  con- 
tinuous up  to  fall,  the  emergence  of  a third  brood  of  butterflies 
is  fairly  noticeable.  During  the  first  week  in  August,  1916, 
the  butterflies  of  the  third  generation  appeared  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  field,  indicating  quite  clearly  the  maximum  period 
of  emergence.  No  adults  emerged  from  the  chrysalids  which 
we  succeeded  in  rearing  from  third  generation  butterflies. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


17 


Life  of  the  Individual 

The  Egg*.  (Figure  5 A.)  The  eggs  are  deposited  singly 
on  either  surface  of  the  leaves,  generally  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  outer  leaves,  without  apparent  regularity.  They  are 
always  deposited  so  that  they  stand  at  right  angles  to  the 
leaf  surface  and  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  When  first 
deposited  they  are  light  greenish  yellow  in  color,  later  turning 
to  a dark  lemon  yellow.  In  shape  they  are  somewhat  like  an 
elongated  jug  without  a handle  and  are  about  as  large  as  a 
small  seed.  The  widest  diameter  is  about  one-third  of  the  dis- 


FIG.  4.— CABBAGE  WORMS  EAT  SOFT  TISSUE  BETWEEN  VEINS 

The  youns  and  larvae  eat  small  holes  in  the  leaf  surface  and  feed  around  the  edges 
Of  these,  dear  up  to  the  veins. 

tanee  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  where  the  egg  measures  ap- 
proximately 0.45  mm.  in  diameter.  The  diameter  at  the  base 
IS  about  0.35  mm.,  at  the  top  .09  mm. ; height  from  base  to  apex 
^9  mm.  to  1 mm.  The  egg  tapers  gradually  from  the  upper 
t ird  to  the  base  and  acutely  from  that  point  to  the  apex,  where 
It  ends  m a flattened  top.  Twelve  longitudinal  ribs  approxi- 
mately 1 mm.  apart  at  the  widest  point  with  a series  of  trans- 
verse markings  around  the  egg  tend  to  give  a basket-like  ap- 
pearance. The  eggs  hatch  in  from  3 to  10  days,  depending  upon 
tne  temperature. 

Egg  deposition.-The  female  alights  near  the  edge  of  the  leaf 
and  cuwes  the  abdomen  under  until  the  tip  encounters  the 
eaf  surface.  The  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  then  firmly  pressed 


18. 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


against  the  leaf  for  a second  and  then  withdrawn,  leaving  the 
egg  standing  on  end. 

One  female  placed  in  a cage  immediately  after  copulation 
laid  a total  of  238  eggs  during  a period  of  5 days, — 125  eggs  the 
first  day,  75  the  second,  37  during  the  third  and  fourth,  and^ 
1 on  the  fifth. 


The  Larva.—  (Figure  5 B.)  When  the  young  larva  is  fully, 
developed  in  the  egg  it  begins  cutting  its  way  out  near  the  top 
of  the  shell.  At  first  a tear  is  made  and  then  the  larva  eats 


FIG.  5.— THE  different  STAGES  OF  THE  LARVA  OF  THE  COMMON  j 

CABBAGE  WORM 


A.  The  egff.  E*  Third  stage.  , 

B.  The  young  larva  breaking  out  of  the  egg.  F.  Fourth  stage. 

C.  The  larva:  first  stage.  G.  Fifth  stage.  ‘ 

D.  Second  stage-  chrysalis. 

away  the  egg  shell  until  an  opening  is  made  large  enough  to  ; 
push  the  head  through.  Its  head  being  larger  than  the  rest! 
of  the  body  the  larva  has  little  trouble  escaping  from  the  shell  | 

after  the  head  is  out.  | 

As  soon  as  the  larva  is  out  of  the  shell  it  turns  around  andf 
beginning  at  the  edge  of  the  opening  feeds  on  the  shell  until  S 
it  is  completely  gone.  About  two  hours  are  required  for  the® 
emergence  of  the  young  larva  and  the  destruction  of  the  shell.* 
Then  the  larva  begins  feeding  on  the  plant  tissue  and  eats  out! 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


19 


little  areas  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf.  When  full-fed  in  any 
stage  it  fastens  itself  to  the  leaf  with  a few  threads  and  pre- 
pares to  molt.  In  molting  the  larva  must  do  considerable 
writhing  before  the  head*  can  be  squeezed  out  of  the  old  skin. 
It  molts  five  times,  so  that  there  are  five  larval  stages  or  instars. 
With  the  fifth  molt  the  larva  changes  to  the  pupal  or  chrysalid 
stage. 

During  the  first  and  second  instars  the  young  larvae  do  not 
move  about  to  any  large  extent  and  usually  continue  feeding 
close  to  the  point  of  emergence.  Following  the  second  molt 
they  move  about  more  and  feed  mostly  on  the  edges  but  not 
necessarily  on  the  outside  edge  (fig.  4).  We  have  made  ob- 
servations to  try  to  determine  if  there  were  any  regularity  in 
the  habits  of  the  older  larvae  but  without  distinct  result.  Larvae 
may  be  found  on  all  parts  of  the  plant  both  day  and  night  and 
although  a number  may  be  found  feeding  at  the  base  of  the 
leaves  and  boring  into  the  head  of  the  cabbage,  equal  numbers 
may  be  found  on  the  outside  leaves  and  even  resting  in  plain 
sight  on  the  upper  surface. 

Larva,  first  stage.  (Figure  5 C.)  Body  a very  pale 
greenish  yellow  to  white  transparent,  which  becomes  green  as 
soon  as  they  have  eaten;  length  about  1.5  mm.  Head  a pale 
greenish  yellow  with  dark  slightly  curving  hairs  of  variable 
length;  about  .35  mm.  broad;  ocelli  black,  mouth  parts  and 
antennae  pale  to  transparent  yellowish,  mandibles  edged  with 
brown  and  teeth  distinctly  brownish ; dark  flecks  or  pits  on  the 
head;  body  cylindrical,  greenish  yellow;  segments  bearing 
i whitish  warts  giving  rise  to  colorless,  slightly  arcuate  hairs,  the 
club  of  the  upper  rows  being  slightly  larger  than  that  of  the 
others;  spiracles  pale  yellow  edged  with  black;  legs  and  pro- 
i legs  color  of  body ; claws  on  the  prolegs  small  and  colorless ; body 
I at  first  .25  mm.  wide  but  later  becomes  as  wide  as  the  head  ex- 
j cept  just  behind  its  base. 

( Larva,  second  stage.  (Figure  5 D.)  Head  and  body  a pale 
green  with  a narrow,  yellowish,  dorsal  stripe ; mingled  black  and 
- white  hairs  arise  from  small  warts  on  the  head ; ocelli  black ; 
mouth  parts  and  antennae  green ; edge  of  mandibles  tinged  with 
black  or  fuscous ; abdominal  segments  with  white  warts  arranged 
I in  subdorsal  rows  giving  rise  to  black,  tapering,  blunt-tipped 
1 hairs;  whole  body  sprinkled  with  fuscous  greenish  warts  giving 
j rise  to  short  black  hairs,  or  moderately  long,  tapering  and  deli- 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


cately  clubbed  pale  hairs,  the  warts  being  arranged  in  seven 
transverse  rows  on  each  segment,  the  anterior  and  posterior 
pairs  being  closer  together  than  the  others;  a snb-stigmatal  an- 
terior white  wart  gives  rise  to  a pale  hair.  Spiracles 
pale  yellow  with  blackish  ring;  legs,  prolegs  and  claws  color  of 
body.  Length  usually  about  9 mm.,  breadth  1.5  mm. 

Larva,  third  stage.  (Figure  5 E.)  The  third  stage  is 

about  the  same  as  the  second.  Each  segment  bears  one  or  two 
small  yellow  spots  along  the  stigmatal  line.  Length  about 
14  mm.,  width  2.  5 mm. 

Larva,  fourth  stage.  (Figure  5 F.)  Head  the  color  of 
the  body  with  many  hair-bearing  warts,  a few  white;  ocelli 
black ; mandibles  greenish,  brownish  to  black  at  the  edge ; body 
green  with  a narrow  dorsal  longitudinal  band  of  green  or  lemon- 
yellow;  body  covered  with  large  and  small  wartlets  giving  rise 
to  fine  white  or  fuscous  hairs,  the  larger  ones  in  transverse 
rows;  also  three  longitudinal  rows  of  white  wartlets,  each  one 
bearing  a fuscous  hair;  a subdorsal  row  in  the  anterior  of  each 
segment;  a stigmatal  row  placed  ventrally;  spiracles  grayish, 
edged  with  black;  legs  green,  claws  blackish;  prolegs,  green. 
Length  about  20  mm.,  breadth  about  4.5  mm. 

Larva,  fifth  stage.  (Figure  5 G.)  The  fifth  stage  is  simi- 
lar to  the  fourth  stage  and  requires  no  additional  description. 

The  Chrysalis.  (Figure  5 H.)  When  full-grown  the 

larvae  begin  crawling  about  hunting  a favorable  place  for  pup- 
ation. Many  pupate  on  the  plants  themselves  but  the  majority 
of  chrysalids  are  found  on  adjoining  fences,  buildings,  trees, 
and,  in  fact,  any  object  which  they  can  ascend.  As  they  begin 
to  pupate  they  spin  a few  silken  threads  which  they  fasten  to 
the  object  beneath  them.  They  then  fasten  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  with  silken  threads  and  make  a girdle  which  surrounds 
the  body  about  midway.  During  this  time  the  body  begins  to 
shorten  and  thicken  at  the  thorax,  and  with  much  wriggling 
the  last  larval  skin  is  cast  off. 

The  chrysalids  of  the  summer  generations  are  greenish  to 
greenish  grey  in  color  and  do  not  show  distinctly  all  the  de- 
termining characteristics.  The  overwinter  chrysalids  are 
more  of  an  ashen  grey  without  the  greenish  tints  of  the  sum- 
mer forms.  The  thoracic  and  abdominal  projections  are  edged 
with  reddish  brown,  the  remaining  portions  being  only  sparsely 
dotted  with  black.  The  dorsal  surface  is  brownish  yellow  with 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin  21 

a greenish  tinge,  abundantly  speckled  with  minute,  black  cir- 
cular punctures  arranged  somewhat  in  transverse  rows  on  the 
abdomen  and  often  connected  with  fine,  black  lines  giving  the 
whole  chrysalis  a fuscous  speckled  appearance. 

The  Butterfly.  (Figure  6.)  The  general  color  is  white  with 
grey  to  black  markings  and  white  or  yellow  beneath  except 
two  black  spots  on  the  underside  of  the  front  wing.  The  fe- 
male Can  he  distinguished  quite  easily  from  the  male  by  the 
two  black  spots  on  the  forewing,  the  male  having  but  one. 

Most  of  the  butterflies  that  were  caught  early  in  the  spring 
were  males.  It  would  seem  that  the  males  emerged  slightly 
earlier  than  the  females.  This  supposition  was  supported  by 


FIG.  6.— ADULTS  OF  THE  COMMON  CABBAGE  WORM 
Left — female.  Right— male. 


data  obtained  from  a cage  in  which  250  individuals  of  the  second 
generation  were  reared.  A large  number  of  males  emerged  first 
while  the  females  did  not  emerge  in  numbers  until  several  days 
later. 

Natural  Control 

If  it  were  not  for  the  natural  agencies  which  help  to  control 
the  cabbage  butterfly,  it  would  indeed  be  a most  serious  pest. 

Birds,  spiders,  insects,  bacteria  and  fungi  destroy  uncount- 
able millions  of  them  each  year  and  many  are  destroyed  through 
unfavorable  climatic  conditions. 

Few  records  have  been  made  of  the  birds  that  feed  on  them 
but  the  chipping  sparrow,  English  sparrow  and  house  wren 
are  known  to  eat  a great  many.  Neither  are  there  records  on 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


destruction  by  spiders,  but  Fitch,  1870,  records  two  species  of 
spiders*  as  feeding  on  them  and  indicates  that  a great  many  are 
destroyed  in  this  way.  At  the  time  of  his  writing  he  had  not 
noticed  any  internal  parasites  but  he  noticed  a number  of  bugs 
of  the  order  Hemiptera  feeding  on  the  larvae. 

In  Wisconsin  we  have  observed  two  hymenopterous  parasites, 
Pteromalus  puparum  and  Apantales  glomeratus,  which  destroy 
great  numbers  of  the  larvae  and  pupae  each  year.  Flacherie, 
a bacterial  disease  sometimes  known  as  ‘‘wilt,”  is  also  prevalent 
and  in  some  years  many  diseased  larvae  may  be  found  hanging 
to  the  leaves  and  rotting  away.  This  disease  has  caused  us  much 
trouble  in  the  insectary  and  destroyed  many  of  the  larvae  used 
for  breeding  data. 

Pteromalus  puparum  L.  is  the  most  common  and  the  most  ef- 
ficient parasite.  Much  has  been  said  regarding  the  particular 
stage  of  the  caterpillar  attacked  by  this  insect  and  no  doubt 
P.  puparum  and  A.  glomeratus  have  been  much  confused  by 
observers.  Mr.  Pickett  has  made  numerous  observations  on  the 
attack  of  these  two  parasites  and  has  found  that  P.  puparum 
attacks  both  the  larvae  in  the  later  stages  and  the  chrysalids 
just  after  the  last  larval  skin  is  cast.  A.  glomeratus  attacks 
the  larvae  in  the  younger  stages  and  emerges  before  the  pupal 
stage  is  reached. 

Neither  of  these  parasites  was  supposed  to  be  present  in 
America  previous  to  the  importation  of  the  cabbage  worm  and 
Pteromalus  puparum  was  not  noticed  until  1870  or  1871  and 
Apanteles  glomeratus  until  1880. 

Parasitization  by  both  of  these  insects  varies  for  the  different 
generations.  They  are  not  numerous  in  the  spring  but  increase 
rapidly  through  the  summer  months  and  usually  parasitize  a 
very  high  percentage  of  the  larvae  during  August.  At  one 
time  in  August,  122  nearly  mature  larvae  were  gathered  to 
get  data  on  the  number  parasitized.  Of  these  101  were  para- 
sitized, 14  died  from  unknown  causes  and  only  8 developed  into 
butterflies.  The  lowest  number  of  parasites  secured  by  us  from 
any  one  of  these  chrysalids  was  17,  and  67  was  the  greatest. 

In  parasitizing  the  caterpillars,  the  adults  alight  on  the  back 
of  the  caterpillar  near  the  terminal  segments  usually  with  the 
head  toward  the  head  of  the  caterpillar.  In  this  position  the 


* Theridion  hrassicae  and  Theridion  hypophyllum. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


23 


ovipositor  is  suddenly  thrust  beneath  the  skin  of  the  cater- 
pillar and  an  egg  deposited.  The  stung  caterpillar  becomes 
agitated  and  usually  jerks  the  head  back  toward  the  spot  of 
oviposition  before  settling  down  again.  The  parasite  then  lays 
another  egg  in  the  same  manner  with  like  results. 

The  parasitized  chrysalids 
are  darker  in  appearance 
than  unparasitized  ones  and 
the  skin  or  integument  is 
hard  and  brittle.  Parasitized 
chrysalids  can  alwmys  be  dis- 
tinguished from  living  ones 
by  touching  the  abdominal 
portion.  If  parasitized,  this 
part  will  be  hard  and  rigid. 

If  the  chrysalis  is  alive,  it 
will  be  soft  and  flexible.  It 
has  not  been  determined  how 
many  eggs  one  parasite  will 
lay  in  a single  larva.  As 
many  as  139  adult  parasites 
have  been  found  emerging 
from  a single  chrysalid  and 
40  to  50  are  common. 

Apanteles  glomeratus  is 
thought  not  to  be  a native  ^.-paras^es^estrot  many 

species  of  North  America  and  Larva  ot  the  cabbage  worm  destroyed 
special  importations  were  ^ parasit©  (Apanteles  glomeratus). 

made  in  the  early  ’80 ’s. 

It  seems  quite  likely  that  the  species  must  have  become  es- 
established  before  that  time  because  Thomas  in  writing  of 
(Apanteles)  Microgastis  glomeratus  in  1880,  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement: 

“Although  this  species,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  has  not  yet  been 
observed  infesting  these  cabbage  worms  in  this  country,  yet 
cocoons  somewhat  similar  to  those  made  by  it  have  been  found 
about  the  caterpillars  of  P.  rapae.^' 

Chittenden,  1905,  records  it  as  haying  destroyed  60  per  cent 
of  the  larvae  in  a batch  collected  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
August.  In  another  collection  made  during  the  first  week  in 
September  every  larva  was  destroyed  by  the  same  parasites. 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


Matheson  has  studied  the  life  history  of  this  species  to  some 
extent  and  gives  notes  (1907)  on  general  life  history  and  habits. 
He  found  that  about  50  per  cent  of  the  larvae  of  Pieris  rapae 
taken  in  July  and  August  were  parasitized  and  in  September 
and  October  this  had  increased  to  an  average  of  60  to  75  per 
cent. 

The  adults  of  Apanteles  glomeratus  are  very  noticeable  among 
the  cabbage  larvae  and  may  be  readily  seen  as  they  settle  to 

oviposit  on  them.  In  parasitiz- 
ing the  larva,  the  female 
searches  out  a young  one  in 
the  second  or  third  stage, 
bends  the  abdomen  almost  at 
right  angles,  rushes  on  the 
caterpillar  and  drives  the  ovi- 
positor through  the  body  wall. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  two 
or  three  females  ovipositing  in 
the  same  larva  at  the  same 
time.  The  time  required  for 
oviposition  is  from  10  to  15 
seconds  and  Matheson,  1907, 
found  that  from  15  to  35  eggs 
were  deposited  during  each 
egg  laying  period.  The  eggs 
are  said  to  hatch  in  from  3 
to  4 days  and  the  young  larvae 
feed  on  the  fatty  tissue  of  the 
body  without  injuring  the 
vital  parts.  They  mature 
within  8 to  12  days,  and 
cutting  through  the  skin  they 
escape  to  the  outside,  where  each  individual  constructs  a 
little  yellowish  silken  cocoon  in  which  it  pupates.  The  time 
spent  in  spinning  a cocoon  is  not  over  45  minutes  and  often  less. 
The  number  of  parasites  from  a single  larva  varies  greatly; 
usually  there  are  from  20  to  30  although  as  many  as  140  have 
been  Recorded.  In  the  field  the  parasitized  larvae  turn  to  a 
dark  yellow  color.  The  dorsal  stripe  widens  and  becomes  more 
distinct.  They  also  have  a (^istinct  puffy  and  unhealthy  ap- 
pearance. 

Flacherie  or  “wilt”  (figure  8)  usually  does  not  become  ap- 


FIO.  8.— BACTERIA  WILE  ALSO  DESTROY 


WORiMS 

Many  larvae  are  killed  on  the  plants  by  a 
disease  known  as  wilt,  or  flacherie. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin  25 

parent  in  the  larvae  until  after  the  fourth  molt.  The  larvae 
then  appear  natural  but  do  not  eat,  and  upon  being  touched 
they  are  found  to  be  soft  and  often  dead,  though  apparently 
alive.  Following  this  stage  of  the  disease,  the  skin  begins  to 
shrink,  the  body  turns  brown,  then  black,  and  finally  dries  up. 

A number  of  additional  insects  such  as  wasps,  plant  bugs, 
wheel  bugs  and  Tachinid  flies  prey  on  the  cabbage  butterfly 
either  in  the  larval  or  adult  stage  but  do  not  play  any  great 
part  in  their  control  in  Wisconsin. 

• Remedies 

In  the  history  of  nearly  every  insect  pest  there  has  been  a 
long  series  of  attempted  methods  of  control  and  as  a rule  ef- 
fective measures  have  been  determined  upon  only  after  many 
substances  and  methods  have  been  tried  out.  In  each  case 
many  worthless  and  a few  effective  and  practical  remedies  are 
produced.  This  was  especially  true  prior  to  the  development 
of  arsenate  of  lead,  because  no  effective  remedy  was  known 
for  chewing  insects  except  paris  green  and  london  purple. 
These  were  considered  to  be  dangerous  to  the  consumer  and 
were  avoided  except  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity.-  At  the 
same  time  continued  attempts  were  being  made  to  find  a poison 
that  would  be  effective  against  insects  and  would  not  remain 
on  the  plants  in  sufficient  amounts  to  poison  the  consumer. 

We  have  made  a study  of  the  various  remedies  tried  out  and 
have  summarized  the  more  important  ones  as  follows : 

The  earliest  recommendations  for  the  control  of  the  cabbage 
butterfly  were  to  pick  off  the  larvae,  gather  the  chrysalids  and 
catch  the  butterflies  in  nets.  Curtiss,  a British  entomologist 
recommended,  ‘‘When  they  attack  the  seed  crop,  shaking  the 
stems  may  prove  useful  providing  the  ducks  are  to  follow  and 
pick  up  the  caterpillars.”  He  suggested  the  use  of  hellebore 
but  did  not  try  it. 

Fitch,  1870,  also  recommended  employing  the  children  to 
catch  the  butterflies  and  the  placing  of  elevated  boards  between 
the  rows  for  the  pupation  of  larvae.  When  the  chrysalids  were 
formed,  they  were  to  be  gathered,  then  destroyed.  He  did  not 
think  .that  hellebore  had  much  value. 

A Mr.  Quin  reported,  1870,  that  a mixture  of  carbolic  pow- 
der, superphosphate  and  lime  destroyed  the  caterpillars.  The 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


carbolic  powder  appeared  to  be  a sawdust  impregnated  with 
carbolic  acid.  He  tried  salt  but  found  that  it  was  not  efficient. 

Other  remedies  suggested  were  hot  water  somewhere  below 
200°  P.,  salt,  brine,  powdered  lime,  ashes,  lye  and  alder  decoc- 
tion. Thomas,  1879,  tested  these  out  and  found  that  they  were 
unsatisfactory.  He  mentioned  the  use  by  others  of  a decoction 
of  dog  fennel  and  knotweed  and  the  use  of  black  pepper  with 
reported  favorable  results. 

Forbes,  1882,  made  a series  of  tests  against  the  larvae  with 
hot  water,  powdered  pyrethrum,  tobacco  smoke,  sulfur,  bisul- 
fide of  carbon,  kerosene  emulsion,  saltpeter,  brine  *and  tar 
water.  He  found  pyrethrum  to  be  the  only  one  of  these  reme- 
dies which  was  both  effective  and  practical  to  use.  Hot  water 
in  strengths  that  would  kill  the  insects  also  killed  the  plants. 
Tobacco  smoke  was  found  impractical  for  field  use.  Sulfur 
killed  the  plants  and  did  not  kill  the  worms. 

The  use  of  arsenicals  in  the  form  of  paris  green  and  london 
purple  were  tried  out  as  early  as  1870  by  Riley  and  were 
found  to  be  effective  but  he  considered  them  dangerous.  Gil- 
lette, 1889,  recommended  the  use  of  paris  green  or  london 
purple  in  20  parts  of  flour,  plaster,  or  plaster  paris,  dusted  over 
the  plants  while  the  dew  was  still  on  them.  He  recommended 
that  pyrethrum  be  used  in  the  place  of  paris  green  when  the 
heads  began  to  form.  In  1891  he  used  oxide  of  silicates  dusted 
over  the  plants  and  found  it  to  be  fairly  effective.  He  estimated 
that  when  the  outer  leaves  were  removed  from  cabbage  sprayed 
with  paris  green,  a person  would  have  to  eat  30  entire  cabbages 
at  one  time  to  get  a poisonous  dose. 

M.  H.  Beckwith,  1889,  states  that  paris  green  or  london  purple 
should  never  be  used  upon  cabbage. 

Sirrine,  1894,  refers  to  Fitch’s  plan  of  catching  the  butter- 
flies and  believes  that  this  is  the  most  practical  preventive  that 
can  be  used.  He  estimates  that  the  progeny  from  a single  fe- 
male might  in  the  third  brood  reach  125,000  female  butterflies. 
He  discusses  the  different  materials  that  had  been  used  pre- 
vious to  that  time  and  concludes  that  paris  green  and  london 
purple  are  the  most  reliable  but  they  should  not  be  sprayed  on 
the  plants  after  they  are  half  grown.  He  conducted  a series 
of  experiments  and  notes  that  neither  road  dust  nor  flour  will 
prevent  injury  from  free  arsenic  if  dew  is  on  the  plants.  The 
addition  of  water  and  slaked  lime  will  prevent  burning  when 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin  27 

r ■ 

the  poison  is  applied  as  a wet  spray  and  also  aids  in  making 
the  poison  adhere  to  the  plants.  He  recommends  mixing  1 part 
of  the  poison  to  15  or  20  parts  of  flour,  road  dust  or  land  plaster 
for  a dry  spray ; and  for  a wet  spray : 


Paris  green  or  london  purple 1 pound 

Lime  unslaked 16  pounds 

Water  to  make 160  gallons 


He  suggested  the  use  of  “gypsine”  or  arsenate  of  lead,  which 
was  then  being  used  by  the  Gypsy  Moth  Commission  of  Massa- 
chusetts for  the  control  of  the  gypsy  moth. 


FIG.  9.— IT  PAYS  TO  SPRAY 

Plants  protected  by  spray  form  perfect  heads;,  unprotected  plants  are  often 
completely  destroyed. 


Spraying  for  Cabbage  Worms 

During  our  investigations  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  arsenicals  are  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  materials 
to  use  in  the  control  of  cabbage  worms  and  other  insects  which 
in  the  ‘ ‘ worm  ’ ’ or  larval  stage  feed  on  cabbage. 

__  To  determine  the  comparative  efficiency  of  the  different  ar- 
senicals now  on  the  market  we  conducted  a series  of  trials  with 
Paris  green,  calcium  arsenate,  zinc  arsenite  and  lead  arsenate. 
Because  of  the  peculiar  waxy  surface  of  the  cabbage  foliage, 
water  alone  rolls  off  in  large  drops  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
“sticker”  of  some  kind.  We  have  tried  out  a number  of  differ- 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


ent  materials,  such  as  Good’s  resin  soap,  different  solutions  of 
molasses,  alone  and  with  lime,  and  ordinary  laundry  soap.  We 
have  been  most  successful  with  common  resin  laundry  soap, ' 
which  causes  the  poison  to  spread  evenly  and  set  well.  Compli- 
cated preparations  are  not  always  satisfactory  and  do  not  give 
any  better  results  than  soap. 


PIG.  10.— SPRAYING  cabbage  PLANTS  TO  KILL  CABBAGE  WORMS 

Sprayers  of  this  type  are  not  costly  and  are  practical  for  use  in  the  garden  and  on 
the  small  truck  farm. 

As  a rule  wet  sprays  are  preferable  to  dusting,  but  in  small 
garden  patches  dusting  may  be  resorted  to  if  the  gardener  does 
not  have  a sprayer.  The  dust  may  be  sifted  through  coarse 
sacking  or  a tin  can  with  holes  punched  in  the  bottom.  A 
practical  garden  sprayer  with  the  pump  in  the  handle  is  shown 
in  figure  10.  In  figure  11  a dusting  apparatus  is  shown 
which  works  exceedingly  well.  Dust  sprays  should  always  be 
applied  early  in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  still  on  the  plants. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


29 


If  a dust  spray  is  used,  mix  thoroughly  1 pound  of  poison  with 
10  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime  or  land  plaster. 

In  Series  II  of  the  experimental  plots  in  which  comparative 
tests  of  zinc  arsenite,  arsenate  of  lead  and  calcium  arsenate  are 
shown,  arsenate  of  lead  and  calcium  arsenate  are  proved  to  be 
satisfactory  spray  for  the  control  of  the  cabbage  worm  while 
arsenite  of  zinc  seems  not  to  have  been  satisfactory.  Further 
trials  with  this  material  are  necessary.  Powdered  lime  alone 
or  mixed  with  tobacco  dust  did  not  give  good  results. 


FIG.  11 


-DUSTING  CABBAGE  PLANTS  TO'  POISON  CABBAGE  WORMS 


This  type  of  dusting  machine  covers  the  plant  thoroughly  and  gives  eflBcient  control. 


Materials  to  Use 

If  arsenate  of  lead,  calcium  arsenate  and  paris  green  are  all 
available,  the  one  that  costs  the  least  should  be  used.  Arsenate 
of  lead  and  calcium  arsenate  in  powder  form  should  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  1 pound  of  material  to  50  gallons  of  water.  In 
paste,  just  twice  as  much,  or  2 pounds  to  50  gallons,  must  be 
used,  as  paste  contains  50  per  cent  water. 

Paris  green  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  % of  a pound  to  50 
gallons  of  water. 

In  order  to  make  any  poison  spread  and  stick  well  when 
spraying  cabbages,  add  1 pound  of  common  laundry  soap  to 
each  50  gallons  of  spray. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


When  to  Spray 

All  plants  should  be  dipped  in  a solution  of  calcium  arsenate 
or  arsenate  of  lead,  1 pound  to  50  gallons  of  water  at  the  time 
of  setting  out  in  the  field.  Early  cabbage  should  be  protected 
by  spray  when  the  plants  are  young  because  of  possible  fiea 
beetle  injury.  Cabbage  worms  are  usually  not  so  bad  on  early 
as  on  late  varieties  and  the  growers  can  spray  or  not,  as  it  seems 
necessary.  On  late  cabbage  two  or  three  applications  of  spray 
are  necessary  to  secure  the  best  results.  Normally  two  appli- 
cations will  suffice  but  in  years  when  the  cabbage  worms  are 
unusually  abundant  a third  application  may  be  applied  at  the 
discretion  of  the  grower.  Two  applications  made  as  indicated 
below  should  give  efficient  control : 

1.  Spray  plants  thoroughly  with  calcium  arsenate  or  arse- 
nate of  lead  1 pound  to  50  gallons  of  water  plus  1 pound  of 
resin  laundry  soap,  from  July  10  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state  to  July  20  in  the  northern  part. 

2.  Spray  again  with  the  same  materials  about  four  to  five 
weeks  after  the  first  application. 

Is  It  Dangerous  to  Eat  Cabbage  Sprayed  With  Poison? 

Whether  or  not  sprayed  cabbage  is  dangerous  to  eat  is  a very 
important  question  in  Wisconsin  because  of  reasons  previously 
mentioned  and  we  have  taken  pains  to  determine  this  both  for 
the  head  and  the  outer  leaves.  If  ordinary  precautions  are 
used  in  cleaning  cabbage,  there  is  no  danger  in  eating  heads 
that  have  been  treated  with  poison.  Cahhage  grows  from  the 
inside  and  all  of  the  leaves  formed  early  in  the  season  and  the 
ones  receiving  the  most  spray  are  stripped  from  the  head  at 
the  time  of  picking.  When  a head  of  cabbage  reaches  the 
housewife,  there  is  but  one  leaf  left  that  might  have  received 
any  spraj^  during  the  summer  and  this  with  others  is  usually 
removed  during  the  cleaning  process. 

From  the  experimental  plats,  Series  II,  we  selected  one  head 
of  cabbage  from  each  of  plats  2,  3,  7,  8,  9,  11  and  6,  the  last 
being  a check  and  unsprayed.  Each  head  was  prepared  as 
though  it  were  to  be  sent  to  market  and  then  turned  over  to 
the  agricultural  chemistry  department  for  analysis.*  No  trace 


• The  analyses  noted  in  this  bulletin  were  secured  through  the  kindness  of 
E.  B.  Hart,  Department  of  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


31 


of  arsenic  was  found  on  any  head.  An  analysis  of  the  outer 
leaves,  however,  showed  that  a considerable  amount  of  arsenic 
was  present  on  those  parts  of  the  plant  and  care  should  be  used 
in  feeding  the  treated  leaves  to  stock. 

Spraying  Experiments  for  Cabbage  Worms 

Series  I.  The  purpose  of  these  experiments  was  to  determine 
the  comparative  value  of  Black-Leaf -40  and  arsenate  of  lead  for 
the  control  of  worms  on  cabbage. 

Black-Leaf -40  is  unsatisfactory  because  it  rolls  from  the  leaves 
as  it  is  put  on  and  even  when  soap  was  used  the  liquid  did  not 
seem  to  wet  the  larvae  sufficiently  to  kill  them  except  where 
it  collected  in  the  hollows  at  the  base  of  the  leaves. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  arsenate  of  lead  was  efficient  except 
when  combined  with  Good’s  resin  soap,  which  is  a material 
made  especially  as  a'  sticker  on  cabbage  and  similar  plants. 
The  resin  soap  was  dissolved  in  the  water  and  the  poison  added 
in  the  usual  manner.  The  spray  appeared  to  spread  out  on  the 
plants  well  but  for  some  reason  the  poison  did  not  appear  to 
affect  the  larvae. 

Series  II.  The  purpose  of  these  experiments  was  to  com- 
pare zinc  arsenite,  lead  arsenate,  paris  green,  and  calcium  arsen- 
ite  as  poisons  and  also  to  see  if  tobacco  dust  or  lime  might  prove 
effective. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  calcium  arsenate  and  paris  green  were 
shown  to  be  effective  both  as  wet  and  dust  sprays.  Arsenate  of 
lead  used  as  a dust  spray  was  even  effective  when  used  at  the 
rate  of  1 pound  to  50  pounds  of  lime. 

We  are  unable  to  account  for  the  poor  results  obtained  from 
arsenite  of  zinc  and  believe  that  the  material  used  was  defective 
in  some  way.  Further  experiments  are  necessary  to  get  reliable 
data  on  this  material. 

Tobacco  dust  and  lime  were  not  at  all  effective. 


Table  X, — Spraying  Experiments  for  Cabbage  Worm  1916  (Series  I) 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  45 


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The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 


33 


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35 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  AMERICAN  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Anderson,  F.  E.  Insect  Life  1;  27-28  1888 

1.8.. 

Can.  Ent.  C:  184.  1874. 

Can.  Ent.  7:  163.  1875 

Can.  Ent.  8:  3.  1876. 

Bowles,  G.  J.  Can.  Nat.  n.  s.  l;  258.  1864 

Browning-,  G.  W.  Ent.  News.  12;  303,  32-33.  1903 

Campbell,  J.  P.  Ga.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  o s 2-  32-3^;  icoq 
Cassidy,  J.  Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui  «•  8 18R9 

Caumeld,  F.  B.  Can.  Ent.  5;  59.  isk^’ 

Chittenden,  F.  H.  U.  S D A Rnr  trnf  o 

Claypole.  Ont.  Ent.  Soc.  Rpt.‘  ^81:  33.  mi. 

Cook,  A.  J.  The  Country  Gentleman  42:667.’  1877 
Couper,  Wm.  Can.  Ent.  4;  203.  1872 

Can.  Ent.  6:  37.  1874 

Dempsey,  P.  C.  Can.  Ent.  9;’l88.  1877 

Dodge,  G.  M.  Can.  Ent.  14;  39.  1882.  ’ 

Fernald,  H.  F.  Mass  St.  Bd.  Agr.  Rpt.  1900;  332-3,3.5 
— — - Pa.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  48;  14.  Fig.  3 1899 

PletphP^^^T  ^ Soc.  Trans.  1869;?43-566.  ^ 1870 

Fletcher,  Can.  E^xptl.  Farms  Rpt.  1888:68.  1888 

^^^-.So^.  Anji.  Rpt.  31:69.  1900 

— ; ■ U.  S.  D.  A.  Bur.  Ent.  Bui.  26:  95  iqnn 

horbes,  S^  A.^  Ilh  St.- Ent.  Rpt.  12:92-97.  1883. 

— 111.  St.  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.  Bui.  2:257  321  1887 

Garman,  H Ky.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Rpt.  2:  9.’  1889^’ 

114:15-47.  1904 

Gillette,  C.  P la.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  5:171-174  1889 

la.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  12:536-538.  1891  ' 

— — — Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  24:  3-7.  1893 

Hamilton,  John.  Can.  Ent.  17;  203.  1885. 

Hul^t^r  n V®  A-  36:  5.  1897. 

A?-  Sta.  Bui.  50:  4-8.  1888 

Jack,  J.  A.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc.  Trans.  1894:133  151  tpt  i\ 

Lmtner,  J A.  N Y.  St.  Ent.  Ann.  RptT  52,  59  18f2 

Pi Amer.  Nat.  5:724-725.  1871 

— — Can.  Ent.  3:  197.  1871. 

! Lockhea(^  W.  Ont.  Ent.  Soc.  Ann.  Rpt.  30:  82.  1899 

I Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Rpt.  1895-  167-173  1896 

Matheson,  R.  Can.  Ent.  39:205.  1907  -loi  i/i.  i89b. 

i 2:  28-32.  1888 

! Minot,  C.  S.  Amer.  Ent.  2:  74-76.  1869 

. 0??ut/'T^'TT  ^^A  1890. 

I 8sS;;^k,  >892. 

i if  f ofpg  Rpt-  ^n1"'anl‘’Ben'^n®“2: 

Perkiiis  r H V,  Int-  ?P.t-  1W5:  589-810  or  747-751. 

I ^erKins,  G.  H.  Vt.  Bd.  of  Agr.  Ann.  Rnt  4-159-161  ifi77 

jProvancher,  A.  Can.  Nat.  2:  13-18.  1867.  ® 

j Rilej^C.  V.  M^  St.  Ent.  Ann.  Rpt.  2;  104-110.  1870 
!'  ~ and  Bot.  Mag.  2:338,  341.  1870 

I U.  S.  D.  A.  Bur.  of  Ent.  Bui.  9:36.  1886  ' 

j— Amer.  Nat.  18:80.  1884. 

w.  ^a;£iprAtr"^„lN7.^i'^^l-9fo"''- 

-j Saunders,  W.  Can.  Ent.  10:185.  1878 

^ Schwarz,  E.  A.  Wash.  Ent.  Soc.  Proc  *1-49  1888 

nN  E^xf  if;#  5115: 

isiis-  f i->Tf  ¥ V"  ?«-‘28ir5: 

i C.  111.  Dept.  Agr.  Trans,  n.  s.  9:  8-24.  (9th  Rpt  111  St  Ent  1 

IWrlght,  w|-  Sffe"s,- 46."  lUI'""’  *''■  S‘'  ®"‘-) 

I Can.  Ent,  28:  102,  1896. 


Research  Bulletin  46 


October,  1919 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 

L.  R.  JONES.  M.jMILLER  and  E.  BAILEY 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Introduction  1 

Frost  necrosis  distinguished  from  other  injuries 1 

Previous  publications  3 

Experimental  materials  and  methods 6 

Earlier  work,  1916-1916  6 

Later  work,  1918  9 

The  symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  in  potato  tubers . . . 11 

Effect  of  freezing  upon  the  potato 11 

Symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  as  developed  experimentally. , . 11 

Types  of  necrotic  lesions 14 

Symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  as  found  in  storage 18 

Rate  of  discoloration  of  frozen  tubers 19 

Frost  necrosis  symptoms  contrasted  with  those  of  other  tuber 

maladies  20 

Dry  rot  21 

Wet  rot,  soft  rot 21 

Ring  necrosis  21 

Brown  rot  21 

Net  necrosis  22 

Black  heart 22 

Internal  brown  spot  22 

The  amount  and  types  of  frost  necrosis  which  occur  at  differ- 
ent temperatures  23 

Injury  above  -3.2®C 23 

Injury  at  —3®  to  — 4.5®C 27 

Injury  at  -5®  to  -5.6®  C.  and  at  -6®  to  -8®C 28 

Injury  at  -10.5®  to  -11.7®C 29 

Relation  of  tuber  condition  to  susceptibility  to  freezing 30 

Relative  resistance  of  mature  and  immature  tubers 30 

Influence  of  relative  turgidity  of  tubers 31 

Relation  of  sugar  content  . 33 

Influence  of  wounds  and  bruises  upon  susceptibility 34 

Relative  susceptibility  of  sprout  and  tuber  tissues 34 

Supercooling  and  ice  crystallization  associated  with  frost  ne- 
crosis   36 

Relation  of  time  element  to  supercooling 38 

The  ultimate  freezing  point 40 

Relative  temperatures  of  air  and  potato  40 

Summary  42 

Literature  cited  45 


Frost  Necrosis'  of  Potato  Tubers 


L.  R.  JONES.  M.  MILLER  and  E.  BAILEY 

The  late  or  main  crop  of  potatoes  as  grown  and  handled  in 
the  northern  tier  of  states  is  likely  to  be  exposed  to  freezing 
temperatures  from  the  last  month  preceding  digging  through 
all  the  stages  of  harvest,  transportation,  storage,  and  delivery 
to  the  ultimate  consumer.  The  danger  of  freezing  injuries  is  one 
of  the  most  serious  risks  of  commercial  potato  growers  and 
dealers  and  the  problems  of  the  transportation  companies  are 
also  seriously  complicated  thereby. 

In  1917,  when  freezing  temperatni'es  occurred  very  gener- 
ally through  the  northern  states  before  or  during  potato  har- 
vest, the  resultant  losses  probably  constituted  a greater  toll 
upon  the  Wisconsin  crop  than  all  other  disease  factors  com- 
bined, .and  even  in  1918,  when  the  climatic  conditions  were  es- 
pecially favorable,  freezing  injuries  were  common  and  serious. 
These  consisted  not  only  in  the  immediate  loss  of  tubers  frozen 
in  the  field  or  warehouse,  but  also  in  the  later  appearance  in 
storage  of  potatoes  exhibiting  the  more  obscure  freezing  injuries. 

Frost  necrosis  distinguished  from  other  injuries.  It  is  im- 
portant at  the  outset  to  point  out  the  general  characters  of 
frost  necrosis  that  it  may  be  distinguished  from  other  types  of 
injury.  It  is  well  knowni  that  when  once  frozen  solid  the  po- 
tato tuber  is  killed  and  collapses  immediately  upon  thawing. 
If,  however,  the  exposure  to  freezing  temperatures  is  moderate  or 
of  short  duration,  it  often  happens  that  only  a portion  of  the 
tubers  are  thus  frozen  solid  and  collapse,  the  rest  remaining  un- 
affected as  far  as  external  appearances  indicate.  If,  however, 
such  superficially  sound  tubers  are  cut  open,  various  evidences 
of  internal  injury  will  be  found  in  at  least  some  of  them.  In 

'"'porosis  is  synonymous  with  the  term  freezing  necrosis  used  by  Link 
and  Oardner  in  an  unpublished  manuscript.  (See  footnote  1,  page  20.)  Ilie  writers 
agiee  Mith  them  that  frost  necrosis  is  a local  or  restricted  freezing  injury  which  results 
trom  exposure  to  temperature  sufficiently  low  to  cause  ice  formation  in  the  tissues  and 
IS  thus  distinct  from  chilling  injury  which  results  at  temperatures  not  low  enough  to 
induce  ice  formation  in  the  plant  tissues.  The  writers  us?  the  term  frost  necrosis  rather 
than  freezing  necrosis  since  frost  necrosis  has  been  used  in  a previous  publication 
(Jones,  L.  R.  and  Bailey,  E.,  Frost  necrosis  of  potato  tubers.  Phytopath.  7.  71-72.. 


9 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


most  eases  such  injuries  remain  strictly  internal  and  hence,  if  the 
potatoes  are  marketed  their  defects  are  not  detected  until  the 
potatoes  reach  the  ultimate  retailer  or  consumer. 

The  irregular  occurence  and  distribution  of  tubers  Avhich 
show  such  internal  lesions  of  frost  necrosis  makes  them  difficult 
to  sort  out  in  storage  lots.  Naturally,  potatoes  frozen  during 
harvest  or  transportation  become  mixed  with  the  sound  ones, 
but  it  is  a surprising  fact  that  when  storage  chambers  are  sub- 
jected to  the  same  freezing  temperatures  and  uniform  condi- 
tions of  ventilation,  certain  scattered  individual  tubers  will  be 
injured  and  others  not.  This  individual  susceptibility  of  po- 
tatoes to  freezing  injuries,  combined  with  the  still  more  con- 
fusing fact  that  frost  necrosis  is  often  mistaken  for  pathologi- 
cal conditions  arising  from  other  causes,  makes  it  important 
that  there  be  a further  understanding  both  of  the  conditions 
and  nature  of  freezing  injury  to  potato  tubers.  This  is  especialN 
needed  at  this  time  because  of  two  recent  coordinated  develop- 
ments involving  critical  consideration  of  potato  tuber  maladies. 
On  the  one  hand  is  the  movement  for  the  state  inspection  and 
certification  of  potato  seed  stocks,  on  the  other  is  the  develop- 
ment of  the  national  market  inspection  service.  In  both  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  differentiate  frost  necrosis  from  other  types 
of  tuber  injury  or  disease,  especially  the  non-parasitic  ''net- 
necrosis”  and  the  Fusarium  ''ring  necrosis.”  Indeed,  it  was 
because  of  the  evident  confusion  of  frost  necrosis  with  certain 
of  these  other  types  of  injury  that  the  senior  author’s  atten- 
tion was  first  directed  to  this  problem.  Frequently  within  the 
past  four  years  potatoes  showing  distinct  symptoms  of  ring  or 
net  necrosis  have  lieen  found  in  storage  cellars  where  it  was 
definitely  known  that  they  were  generally  sound  when  stored 
and  had  been  subjected  to  freezing  temperatures  while  in  the 
cellar.  One  striking  example  of  typical  net  necrosis  occurred 
in  a certain  lot  of  selected  exhibition  potatoes  shown  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Wisconsin  Potato  Growers’  Association  in  1914. 
The  exhibitor  was  confident  that  the  tubers  were  normal  when 
he  started  from  home  but  they  had  been  subjected  to  freezing 
tenqieratures  in  transit.  Similar  conditions  were  found  in 
seveiTil  lots  of  potatoes  in  the  exhibition  of  1918.  The  matter 
})i*esented  so  much  of  practical  as  well  as  scientific  interest  that 
further  observations  have  been  supplemented  by  careful 


Fkost  Nkchosis  of  Potato  Tubfrs 


experiments  to  detennine  the  effects  of  various  freezing 
temperatui’es  upon  potatoes. 

Previous  publications.  Several  previous  publications  have 
embodied  the  results  of  more  or  less  extensive  investigations 
upon  freezinjj'  injury  to  potatoes.  The  most  valuable  of  these  is 
that  of  Muller-Thur^au  (4,  5,  who  umhn-took  to  detennnie 
the  temperatures  at  which  plant  tissues  frcmze.  llis  tirst  con- 
cern was  with  the  phenomena  of  su})ercoolin»-  and  the  determi- 
nation of  the  ultimate  freezing-  point,  but  in  connection  with 
this  (5)  he  investigated  the  turning  sweet  of  chilled  potatoes. 

Since  then,  Apelt  (1)  in  Europe,  1907,  has  approached  these 
questions  by  somewhat  different  methods,  while  in  America 
Appleman  (2)  published  his  observations  in  1912.  In  general, 
where  their  conclusions  have  not  been  in  agreement,  our  own 
results  have  confirmed  those  of  MiilleT--Thui*gau.  In  none  of 
these  earlier  publications,  however,  was  critical  attention  fo- 
cused upon  the  internal  lesions  or  symptoms  of  frost  necrosis 
and  it  is  chiefly  here  that  our  own  eff'oi-ts  have  aimed  to  sup- 
plement those  of  previous  workers. 

AVhile  the  details  must  be  left  for  later  consideration  it  will 
be  helf)ful  at  the  outset  to  summarize;  the  conclusioiis  upon 
which  there  is  general  agreement. 

Plant  tissues,  in  general,  must  be  cooled  to  some  degree  be- 
low the  freezing  point  of  water  before  ice  crystallization  begins. 
With  the  potato  it  is  the  consensus  of  judgment  that  there  is 
no  killing  of  tissue  or  other  permanent  or  injurious  effect  short 
of  ice  crystallization.  Where  tubers  are  held  at  temperatures 
near  or  slightly  below  the  freezing  j)oint  of  water,  but  above 
the  freezing  point  of  the  potato  tissue,  they  turn  sweet  owing 
to  the  accumulation  of  sugar  i)roduced  by  the  gradual  starch 
conversion.  It  is  commonly  believed  by  potato  handlers  and 
has  even  been  stated  in  literature  by  Norton  (7,  p.  70)  that 
this  is  due  to  their  having  been  slightly  fr-ozen.  Miiller- 
Thurgau  (5,  p.  75d),  and  others  since,  particularly  Apelt  (1,  pp. 
12-27)  and  Aj)pleman  (2,  p.  430),  have  disproved  this.  By 
storing  potatoes  for  long  periods  as  low  as  -1.06°C.  (29°E.) 
Appleman  (2,  p.  333)  determined  that  sugar  accumulated  most 
rapidly  at  0°C.  or  below,  and  that  freezing  with  potato  tubers 
began  between  -2.2°  and  -3.3°C.  (26°  and  28°E.).  Miiller- 
Thurgau  (5,  p,  753)  stored  j)otatoes  at  temperatures  ranging 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


from  0°  to  -3°C.  for  two  weeks  and  found  them  still  unfrozen 
after  that  period.  Our  own  results  as  will  appear  later,  confirm 
their  conclusions  that  there  is  a considerable  range  possible  in 
this  critically  low  temperature  at  which  tubers  may  turn  sweet 
before  they  begin  to  freeze.  Furthermore,  none  of  these  men 
has  ever  found  potatoes  to  become  sweet  as  a result  of  freezing 
consequent  upon  rapid  cooling.  Instead  they  determined  the 
rate  of  sugar  accumulation  to  be  very  slow  even  under  most 
favorable  temperatures.  Our  own  experience  is  in  accord  with 
this  in  that  we  have  regularly  tasted  tubers  frozen  experi- 
mentally without  discovering  evidence  of  increased  sugar  con- 
tent in  the  potatoes  which  we  have  subjected  to  freezing  tem- 
peratures enduring  from  2 hours  to  2 days.  Hence,  while  sweet- 
ness indicates  that  tubers  have  been  held  for  some  time  dan- 
gerously near  their  freezing  point,  it  does  not  indicate  that 
they  have  been  frozen. 

Miiller-Thurgau  (4,  p.  147)  showed  that  living  plant  tissues 
in  general  require  supercooling  to  some  degree  below  their 
true  freezing  point  before  ice  crystallization  begins.  He  found 
that  the  freezing  point  of  the  expressed  sap  of  a potato  tuber 
was  -0.65°C.  while  the  living  potato  tuber  tissues  in  his  ex- 
periments required  supercooling  to  -3.2°  to  -6.5°C.  before  they 
began  to  freeze.  Apelt’s  results  with  the  potato,  using  a less 
reliable  method  we  believe,  are  not  in  full  accord  with  this, 
but  our  own  trials  confirm  Miiller-Thurgau ’s  conclusions  that 
supercooling  is  the  normal  course  when  potato  tissues  freeze. 
The  earlier  workers,  were  led  to  define  rather  exact  temperature 
limits  for  these  phenomena  with  potato,  generalizing,  perhaps, 
from  work  upon  a few  tubers  of  uniform  type,  although  they 
do  not  agree  among  themselves  upon  these  limits.  On  the 
other  hand,  our  work  shows  that  there  is  considerable  range 
in  variation  between  individual  tubers,  even  in  the  same  lot  of 
potatoes.  The  most  interesting  point  and  one  of  considerable 
practical  importance  in  relation  to  symptomatology,  is  that 
there  may  also  be  a considerable  range  in  susceptibilitj"  to 
frost  necrosis  between  the  different  tissues  in  the  same  tuber. 
Here  again  IMiiller-Thurgau  records  the  greater  sensitiveness 
of  the  ‘‘cambial”  as  compared  with  parenchymatous  tissues, 
and  of  the  stem  end  as  compared  Avith  the  eye  end  of  the  tuber, 
but  Apelt  failed  to  confirm  these  differences.  Our  own  results 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


5 


not  only  show  the  correctness  of  Miiller-Thurgau ’s  general  ob- 
servations but  enable  us  to  go  considerably  farther  than  did  he 
in  de.tining  such  local  differentiation.  It  is,  indeed,  because  of 
these  differences  as  to  tissue  susceptibility  that  potato  tubers 
when  subjected  to  the  higher  freezing  temperatures  may  exhibit 
various  types  of  internal  symptoms. 


Potato  tubers  which  showed  necrotic  areas  internally  and 
which  were  known  to  have  been  subjected  to  freezing  tem- 


A and  A'  are  longitudinal  halves  of  a potato  tuber.  A was  exposed  to  temperatures 
ranging  from  +10°  to  —5°  O.  for  24  hours  and  shows  vascular  discoloration  of  the  net 
type  of  freezing  injury.  Notice  more  severe  injury  to  stem-end  (below).  A',  control 
lalf,  was  not  subjected  to  freezing  temperatures. 


peratures  were  found  so  frequently  that,  as  already  explained, 
it  seemed  advisable  to  determine  experimentally  the  symptoms 
of  freezing  injury  as  compared  with  those  of  other  maladies.  The 
results  of  such  work  during  the  years  1915-1916  show  conclu- 
sively that  potato  tubers  when  slightly  frozen  are  often  in- 
ternally discolored  while  externally  unharmed.  Later,  in  1918, 
when  a freezing  machine  became  available  from  which  accurate 
temperature  data  could  be  obtained,  a more  critical  study  was 


Experimental  Materials  and  Methods 


FIG.  1.— FROST  NECROSIS  PRODUCED  EXPERIMENTALLY 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


made  of  the  temperatures  at  which  this  injury  becomes  ap- 
parent. Most  of  the  temperature  data  herein  tabulated  were 
secured  from  these  later  experiments  but  they  accord  in  gen- 
eral with  those  obtained  in  the  earlier  trials. 

Earlier  work,  1915-1916.  In  1915  we  obtained  a quantity  of 
potato  tuliers  of  the  variety  Rural  New  Yorker  which  had  been 
grown,  harvested,  and  stored  under  conditions  as  nearly  uni- 
form as  practicable.  In  addition  to  these,  potatoes  were  used 
in  1916  which  were  harvested  at  different  stages  of  maturity 
so  that  data  were  obtained  on  the  susceptibility  of  potatoes  of 
different  ages.  At  first  each  tuber  used  was  cut  in  half  longi- 
tudinally, one  half  kept  for  a control  and  the  other  frozen: 
In  no  case  did  the  necrotic  symptoms  (fig.  1),  which  appeared 
so  frequently  in  the  frozen  halves,  develop  in  the  controls. 
Potatoes  which  showed  internal  spotting  of  any  kind  were  re- 
jected for  experimental  work,  and  where  potatoes  were  not 
cut  in  halves  the  stem  end  was  cut  off  in  advance  to  determine 
whether  or  not  any  internal  spotting  was  present. 

The  tuliers  were  either  exposed  out-of-doors  or  in  a simple 
freezing  chamber.  In  the  out-of-door  experiments  great  num- 
bers of  potatoes  could  be  kept  under  like  conditions,  from  30 
to  50  tuliers  often  being  used  in  a single  experiment.  This 
afforded  a better  opportunity  for  studying  individual  variation 
in  susceptiliility  than  was  possible  in  the  freezing  chamber, 
Avhere,  at  most,  only  12  to  15  tubers  could  be  tested  at  one 
time.  In  the  out-of-door  experiments  a thermograph  was  used 
for  recording  temperatures ; in  the  freezing  chamber  thermom- 
eter readings  were  made.  The  apparatus  used  in  these  experi- 
ments was  of  the  simple  ice  cream  freezer  type  of  construction, 
easily  understood  from  figure  2,  which  shows  the  insulating 
box  surrounding  the  three  cylindrical  tin  cans,  each  fitted  with 
a tight  cover  and  completely  enclosing  the  one  next  inside. 
Tlie  tubers  were  field  at  the  level  of  the  mercury  bulb  of  a 
long-stemmed  thermometer,  the  scale  of  which  was  well  above 
the  cover  of  the  freezing  chamber  so  that  it  was  not  necessary 
to  change  its  position  to  read  the  temperatures. 

In  setting  up  an  experiment  the  ice  and  salt  were  first  packed 
about  the  container,  the  potatoes  next  inserted  in  the  inner 
chamber  and  the  can  covers  and  the  thermometer  then  put  in 
position.  Using  this  method  a half  hour  or  more  was  necessary 


Frost  Necrosis  of  I^otato  Tubers 


for  the  temperature  of  the  freezing  chamber  to  drop  to  the  de- 
sired degree  below  0°C.  Attempts  were  made  to  reduce  ma- 
terially this  preliminary  cooling  period  hy  packing  the  freez- 


Diagram  of  freezing  chamber  in  Mhich  the  containers  are  all  cylindrical  tin  cans 
fitted  with  tight  covers,  except  the  outermost,  which  is  of  Avood.  Tubers  (T)  are 
placed  in  inner  chamber  (I)  supported  by  a AAire  gauze  AAhich  is  held  at  the  level  of  the 
mercury  bulb  of  the  thermometer  (B).  This  inner  chamber  is  insulated  by  air  space 
(A)  and  cooled  by  the  freezing  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  (I  and  S).  SaAvdust  (S)  is  packed 
between  the  box  (Bo)  and  freezing  mixture. 


ing  mixture  about  the  chamber  an  hour  before  the  insertion  of 
the  tubers  that  chamber  and  container  air  might  be  fully 
chilled  in  advance.  It  was  found  to  make  little  difference, 
however,  since  the  air  disturbance  consequent  upon  opening 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


the  chamber  and  inserting  the  tubers  was  such  that  the  pre- 
liminary period  needed  to  bring  the  chamber  to  0°C.  was  prac- 
tically as  long  as  by  the  first  method.  Mnller-Thurgau  used  a 
freezing  machine  not  unlike  that  described  above  and  he  re- 


The  general  structure  of  this  machine  is  like  that  used  in  the  earlier  work  (fig.  1). 
The  inner  ireezing  chainher,  however,  has  several  new  features.  Heat  is  furnished  by 
electric  coil  (K)  which  is  regulated  by  electrical  connections  with  the  thermostat,  the 
U-tube  of  which  is  represented  by  U.  These  electrical  connections  (not  shown  in  dia- 
gram) were  made  through  opening  (O)  in  the  heavy  iron  cover  (Co)  which  also  supports 
the  frame  (Fr)  for  the  wire  baskets  (H).  The  arrows  indicate  the  general  direction  of 
air  currents  which  are  produced  by  revolving  fan  (F).  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  inner 
cylinder  (C)  is  open  at  both  ends,  above  and  below,  this  permitting  free  air  circulation. 


cords  constant  temperatures  throughout  an  experiment.  Ap^ 
parently  he  did  not  take  into  consideration  the  rate  of  fall  nor 


' f’or  the  use  of  this  apparatus  we  are  indebted  to  Geo.  F.  Potter,  of  he  Department 
of  Horticulture.  IVlr.  Potter  designwl  it  primarily  for  study  of  the  effects  of  freezing 
temperatures  on  the  roots  of  nursery  stock.  He  will  publish  the  full  details  in  relation 
to  its  construction  and  operation  soon,  but  tve  are  permitted  through  his  courtesy  to 
indicate  tlie  general  features  and  unusual  advantages  of  this  apparatus. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


9 


the  fluctuations  which  must  have  occurred  where  experiments 
were  continued  for  several  hours, 

Later  work,  1918.  In  our  recent  experiments  (1918),  we 
have  used  the  Potter  freezing  apparatus^  which  has  furnished 
more  accurate  data  with  ability  to  satisfactorily  control  the 
temperatures.  The  general  construction  of  the  freezing  cham- 
ber (flg.  3)  is  similar  to  that  described  above  but  special  de- 
vices are  added  for  accur- 
ately controlling  the  rate  and 
degree  of  cooling  the  freez- 
ing chamber.  This  is  ac- 
complished through  the  in- 
sertion of  an  electric  heating 
coil  with  a regulating  device 
such  that  the  temperature  can 
be  made  to  fall  at  an  exactly 
controlled  rate  and  stopped 
and  held  constant  at  any  de- 
sired point  short  of  the  ex- 
treme temperature  procurable 
by  the  ice-salt  mixture.  Since 
this  latter  point  is  much  be- 
low the  temperatures  with 
which  we  were  concerned  in 
our  potato  freezing  trials  the 
apparatus  proved  highly  effi- 
cient and  satisfactory.  In 
most  of  these  trials  the  appar- 
atus was  so  adjusted  as  to 
drop  the  temperature  in  the 
experimental  chamber  to  0°C. 
at  the  end  of  the  first  half 
hour  and  to  lower  it  31/2  de- 
grees each  hour  thereafter  un- 
til the  desired  minimum  was 
reached. 

For  determining  the  internal  temperatures  of  freezing  potatoes. 
Miiller-Thurgau ’s  method  was  employed  as  described  by  him  ( 1 , 
p.  168).  Two  thermometers  were  used,  one  of  which  was  sus- 
pended in  the  air  of  the  freezing  chamber,  the  other  in  a cavity 
made  in  the  end  of  a tuber  as  shown  in  figure  4. 


FIG.  4.— LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF 
TUBER  AS  USED  IN  SUPERCOOL- 
ING EXPERIMENTS 

Thermometer  bulb  (B)  is  inserted  in  cavity 
(O  made  m stem  end  of  tuber  (T). 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


In  order  to  preclude  any  undue  pressure  or  tlie  freezing  of 
sap  from  the  cut  surface  of  the  tuber  upon  the  mercury  bulb 
of  the  thermometer,  the  thermometer  was  so  suspended  that  it 
did  not  press  against  the  bottom  of  the  pit  and  the  cavity  was 
made  about  twice  as  great  in  diameter  as  the  thermometer  and 
was  carefully  dried  out  with  filter  paper  to  rid  it  of  free  sur- 
face sap.  No  doubt  the  mercury  bulb  touched  the  walls  of 
tills  cavity  but  the  data  (Table  IX)  indicate  that  the  tempera- 
ture readings  were  not  influenced  perceptibly  by  pressure  or 
the  freezing  of  water  upon  the  bulb.  While  the  temperatures 
obtained  in  this  may  not  indicate  the  temperatures  of  the  whole 
tuber,  they  do  markedly  differ  from  the  air  temperatures  and 
give  some  indication  of  what  may  be  taking  place  inside  the 
tuber. 

In  the  1918  experiments  carefully  selected  tubers  were  used 
chiefly  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker  variety.  These  had  in  all 
cases  been  harvested  and  stored  without  risk  of  freezing  and  suffi- 
cient numbers  of  untreated  tubers  were  cut  open  to  prove  them 
to  be  generally  free  from  internal  lesions.  This  enabled  us  to 
proceed  confidently  in  their  use  without  previous  cutting  of 
each  experimental  tuber  since  this  exposure  of  freshly  cut  tis- 
sue introduces  a disturbing  factor.  The  later  trials  were  con- 
ducted during  the  latter  part  of  the  normal  storage  period, 
February-July.  In  some  cases  the  tubers  were  kept  previous 
to  trial  in  the  warm,  dry  laboratory  long  enough  to  secure  par- 
tial wilting  in  order  to  compare  normally  turgid  with  Avilted 
specimens.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  pei'iod  (March-July) 
Triumph  potatoes  Avere  introduced  into  the  trials.  These  had 
been  preAuously  stored  at  .temperatures  approaching  0°C 
so  that  there  had  resulted  a considerable  sugar  accumu- 
lation. In  June  and  July  recently  dug,  immature  southern 
samples  of  Triumphs  were  available  for  comparison  Avith  this 
old  stock.  Some  Early  Ohios  and  Irish  Cobblers  Avere  also 
tested  at  this  time.  In  preAUOus  years  trials  had  been  made  in- 
volving different  varieties,  degrees  of  turgidity,  and  stages  of 
matuiity.  The  details  regarding  these  are  given  later  in  this 
article  so  that  it  Avill  here  suffice  to  state  that  in  general  neither 
variety,  size,  relative  turgidity  nor  stage  of  deA^elopment  nor 
maturity  of  the  tuber  influenced  in  sniy  marked  degree  the  li- 
ability to  frost  necrosis  or  the  type  of  resultant  injury. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


11 


The  Symptoms  of  Frost  Necrosis  in  Potato  Tubers 

Effect  of  freezing  upon  the  potato.  A potato  tuber  that  has 
been  completely  frozen  will  upon  thawing  be  soft  and  watery 
and  will  quickly  collapse  or  decay.  If  the  tuber  is  cut  open 
water  drips  freely  from  it  and  even  before  cutting  the  sap 
freed  by  freezing  oozes  through  the  skin  so  that  the  surface 
is  soon  wet.  This  soft,  wet  condition  immediately  indicates  the 
trouble  to  one  experienced  in  handling  potatoes  exposed  to 
frost.  Very  often  potatoes  are  thus  frozen  and  collapse  on 
one  side  only  (PL,  fig.  C),  owing  to  one-sided  contact  with  a 
frosty  cellar  wall  if  in  storage  or  to  a cold  car  floor  if  in  tran- 
sit, or  it  may  occur  through  partial  exposure  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  before  harvest.  If  such  a frozen  potato 
is  cut  across  soon  after  thawing  the  cut  surface  of  the  interior 
flesh,  although  watery,  is  not  at  first  discolored.  Upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air  it  will,  however,  very  soon  pass  promptly 
through  pink,  red,  and  brown  discolorations  to  a uniform  inky 
blackness.  This,  according  to  Bartholomew  (3,  p.  631),  is  due 
to  the  oxidation  of  certain  elements  in  the  freed  sap  upon  their 
contact  with  the  air.  Evidently  the  absence  of  discoloration 
before  the  tuber  is.  cut  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  process  of 
freezing  and  thawing  the  sap  passes  from  the  interior  of  the 
cells  to  the  intercellular  spaces  thus  driving  out  the  free  air 
and  making  its  reabsorption  almost  impossible  until  the  tuber 
is  cut.  It  is  often  the  case  in  nature  that  the  exposure  to  freez- 
ing temperature  stops  short  of  the  time  or  degree  necessary  to 
the  uniform  or  complete  freezing  of  the  tubers.  In  this  case 
few  or  none  of  them  may  show  the  softening  or  the  wet  surface 
characteristic  of  the  frozen  tuber  yet,  when  they  are  cut  open, 
various  types  and  patterns  of  internal  discoloration  may  be 
found.  Since  such  frost  necrosis  may  bear  close  resemblance  to 
other  types,  of  internal  discoloration  of  the  potato  tuber,  and 
indeed  necrotic  lesions  of  different  types  may  occur  in  the  same 
lot  of  potatoes,  we  have  undertaken  to  induce  frost  necrosis  by 
experimental  methods  in  order  to  determine  the  various  forms  of 
lesions. 

Symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  as  developed  experimentally.  As 

a rule,  potatoes  from  the  experimental  freezing  chamber  which 
do  not  immediately  show  evidences  of  complete  freezing,  i.  e.. 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


become  soft  and  watery,  will  thereafter  develop  no  external  evi- 
dences of  injury  even  though  extensive  internal  necrosis  has 
resulted.  In  exceptional  cases,  however,  upon  tubers  having 
a clean,  smooth,  white  skin,  locally  darkened  areas  may  gradu- 
ally appear  where  the  interior  discolored  areas  lie  in  the  cor- 
tex close  under  the  skin  (fig.  7,  B).  This  is  not,  however,  a 
uniformly  reliable  symptom  and  even  where  detected  requires 
confirmation  through  cutting  of  the  tuber. 


pig.  5.— diagram  op  longitudixal  section  op  a potato  tuber 

The  heavier  black  portions  represent  vascular  elements,  the  stippling  indicates  trans- 
lucent tissue  of  high  water  content.  The  vascular  ring  (r)  connects  the  stem  end  of  the 
tuber  at  the  right  with  the  eyes  scattered  over  the  surface.  The  other  gross  stnietures 
are  as  follows:  Corky  epidermis  (e),  cortex  (c)  with  scattered  phloem  elements  (ph), 

outer  medulla  (om)  with  scattered  phloem  elements  (ph),  and  inner  medulla  (im). 


The  internal  lesions  of  frost  necrosis  appear  as  discolored 
areas  in  the  flesh.  These  may  not  show  marked  discoloration 
in  tubers  cut  immediately  after  their  removal  from  the  freez- 
ing chamber,  but,  as  will  be  discussed  later,  color  differentia- 
tion is  completed  after  five  or  six  hours.  In  many  cases  this 
discoloration  is  quite  definitely  limited  to  the  vascular  ring  or 
follows  the  finer  network  of  vascular  elements  which  branch 
from  this  through  the  outer  cortex  or  interior  pith  regions. 
Fre(|uently  where  the  injury  is  more  severe  or  of  longer  stand- 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


13 


ing  the  discolored  lesions  appear  as  blotches  or  diffused  areas 
scattered  less  regularly  through  the  flesh.  Even  iu  such  cases 
critical  exaiuiuatioii  shows  that  the  discolorations  are  limited 
to  well-defined  areas.  This  can  best  be  determined  by  exam- 
ining a thin  razor  section  of  a necrotic  tuber  by  transmitted 
light.  In  such  sections  the  central  core  of  pith  and  the  vascu- 
lar elements  are  highly  transparent  in  contrast  with  the  starch- 
filled  parenchyma  cells  of  the  cortex  and  outer  pith,  and  the 
darkened  cells  killed  in  the  process  of  freezing  are  almost 
without  exception  those  of  the  vascular  elements  and  the  cells 
bordering  upon  them. 

As  is  shown  in  figure  5 the  arrangement  of  the  vascular  sys- 
tem of  a potato  tuber  is  unlike  that  ordinarily  met  with  in 
modified  stems  for  in  addition  to  the  vascular  ring  there  are 
throughout  the  cortex  and  pith — except  in  the  inner  core  men- 
tioned above — a network  of  small  branching  conductive  ele- 
ments largely  composed  of  phloem  elements,  and  when  these 
vascular  elements  are  all  blackened  we  have  a typical  net  ne- 
crosis (fig.  2,  A and  PL,  fig.  D).  This  symptom,  however,  is  less 
common  in  potatoes  frozen  in  field,  pits,  etc.,  than  are  the 
blotches  which  appear  in  the  cortex,  vascular  ring  and  outer 
pith,  and  which  have  as  centers  vascular  elements  (fig.  3). 
Mliller-Thurgau  (6,  p.  455)  noted  this  distribution  of  lesions 
and  figured  it  in  1886.  He  says  in  regard  to  the  tubers  in 
which  ice  crystals  have  been  formed,  These  tubers  showed 
externally  in  no  way  the  appearance  of  frozen  potatoes,  but 
when  they  were  cut,  soft  places  were  evident  which,  upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  turned  red  and  later  brown.  As  the  obser- 
vations showed,  these  dead  tissue  areas  were  the  parts  where 
the  first  crystal  formation  had  occurred.  These  were  never 
uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  potato  but  showed  alike 
in  over  100  trials  of  this  kind  a very  constant  relation  in  that 
they  occur  in  the  cambium-zone  and  immediately  adjacent 
parts.” 

He  adds,  “In  addition  to  the  roundish  dead  spots  in  such  po- 
tatoes one  finds  early-killed  cells  about  the  irregularly-running 
little  bundles  of  vessels  which  are  the  places  where  the  ice  is 
formed  very  early  and  it  is  possible  that  along  these  paths  the 
freezing  process  is  distributed  to  new  centers.”  Why  these 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


tissues  are  more  susceptible  to  low  temperatures  tlian  others  is 
a question  for  the  plant  physiologist  to  determine.  Miiller- 
Thurgau  attempted  to  explain  it  upon  the  basis  of  water  or 
carbohydrate  content,  but  gives  no  conclusive  results  based 
upon  experimental  evidence. 

Types  of  necrotic  lesions.  No  two  frosted  potatoes  show 
identical  internal  lesions  but  we  have  found  it  practicable  and 
convenient  to  distinguish  three  types  of  necrosis  which  may  be 


FIG.  6.— NET  AND  RING  TYPES  OF  FROST  NECROSIS  EXPERIMENTALLY 

PRODUCED 

Cross  section  of  two  tubers  which  had  been  exposed  before  cutting  to  a temperature 
of  —5.5°  C.  for  two  hours.  The  symptoms  are  much  moi'e  intense  than  those  produced 
at  higher  temperatures  (See  fig.  1). 

A— Intense  net  discolorations.  Notice  blackened  vascular  elements  in  both  medulla 
and  cortex. 

B— Intense  ring  type  somewhat  complicated  by  blotch. 

termed  net,  ring,  and  blotch.  Tt  is,  of  course,  to  be  under- 
stood that  any  such  grouping  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  that  one 
type  often  merges  into  another,  and  that  of  each  there  are 
variations. 

(1)  In  the  net  type  there  is  more  or  less  general  blackening 
of  the  finer  ramifications  of  the  vascular  elements  extending 
as  a network  from  the  vascular  ring  internally  toward  the  pith 
and  to  a less  extent  externally  into  the  cortical  region  (fig.  6, 
A and  PI.,  hg.  D). 

(2)  The  ring  ty})e  is  characterized  by  a more  pronounced 
blackening  of  the  tissues  in  and  adjacent  to  the  vascular  ring. 
It  may  be  rather  wide  and  diffuse  (fig.  9,  B)  or  narrow  and 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


15 


intensely  blackened  (fig.  6,  B)  and  is  often  restricted  to  the 
stem  end. 

(3)  The  blotch  constitutes  a less  well-de.tined  type  where  the 
discoloration  appears  as  small  ovoidal  or  larger  irregular 
patches  ranging  from  an  opaque  grayish  color  to  sooty  black. 
These  occur  most  commonly  in  the  vascular  ring  and  cortex 
although  they  may  be  located  in  the  pith  (fig.  7,  A and  B,  and 
PI.,  fig.  A,  E). 


FIG.  7.— BLOTCH  TYPE  OF  FROST  NECROSIS 

A— Longitudinal  section  of  a tuber  exposed  to  temperatures  ranging  from  0°  to  — 4° 
C.  for  nine  hours.  Blotches  more  abundant  in  stem  end. 

B — Cross  section  of  the  stem  end  of  a necrotic  tuber.  The  intense  blotches  in  the 
vascular  and  cortical  regions  were  evidenced  by  dark  areas  on  the  exterior  of  the 
tuber. 

When  any  considerable  number  of  tubers  are  subjected  to 
identical  freezing  conditions  it  will  be  found  upon  cutting  them 
open  that  different  types  of  frost  necrosis  may  have  resulted  so 
that  one  cannot  with  exactness  associate  these  different  symp- 
toms with  definite  temperature  exposures.  Numerous  observa- 
tions have,  however,  shown  that  some  conditions  of  freezing 
give  a preponderance  of  certain  necrotic  types.  For  example, 
with  Kural  New  Yorker  tubers  held  at  -5°C.  for  two  hours  a 
high  percentage  of  net  necrosis  resulted  (Table  3),  the  symp- 
toms becoming  more  intense  with  prolonged  exposure.  This 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


FIG.  8.— BLOTCH  TYPE  OF  FROST  ^ECROSIS  FOUND  IN  STORAGE 

A— Cross  section  of  the  stem  end  of  a tuber  frozen  in  storage. 

B — I.ongi-section  of  the  remainder  of  the  same  tuber.  The  lesions  in  this 
case  are  confined  to  a relatively  small  portion  of  the  stem-end.  The  growth 
cracks  in  the  interior  flesh  have  no  relation  to  freezing  injury. 


Fkost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


17 


same  symptom  type  occured  in  the  Triumph  variety  as  a re- 
sult of  an  exposure  of  -8°C.  for  less  than  two  hours  and  prac- 
tically never  at  higher  temperatures.  The  ring  type  is  but 
slightly  less  common  than  the  blotch  in  tubers  of  all  varieties 
subjected  for  long  periods  to  high  freezing  temperatures.  Both 
occur  commonly  in  potatoes  which  have  been  frozen  in  storage. 
Less  definite  blotch  discolorations  of  the  opacpie  type  predomi- 
nate in  field  frozen  siiecimens  (fig.  8),  freiiuently  being  re- 
stricted to  a sunburned  side  of  the  tidier,  AVith  Rural  New 
A^orkers  this  blotching  occurs  with  prolonged  exposure,  12 
hours  or  more,  at  -3°C.  Tubers  of  the  Early  Ohio  variety  often 
in  our  trials  showed  a sooty  ring,  water-soaked  and  intensely 
black  even  when  not  subjected  to  extreme  exposures.  These 
observations,  which  are  in  the  main  deduced  from  a series  of 
experiments  with  well-matured  tubers,  during  winter  storage, 
are  not  presented  as  final  evidence  that  varietal  differences  are 
constant  factors.  On  the  contrary,  examination  of  hundreds  of 
samples  of  several  varieties  of  potatoes  which  were  accidentally 
frozen  do  not  indicate  any  such  uniformity.  They  do  show, 
however,  that  minor  varietal  differences  appear  where  freezing 
conditions  are  accurately  controlled. 

A\^hile  we  have  learned  to  expect  internal  darkening  of  the 
tissues  as  a regular  symptom  of  severe  frost  necrosis,  there  are 
mild  types  in  which  this  may  not  show  much  when  the  tubers 
are  first  cut  open.  In  some  such  cases,  even  with  tubers  which 
had  stood  for  a number  of  hours  after  removal  from  the  freez- 
ing chamber,  the  only  evidence  of  frost  necrosis  upon  cutting 
them  open  was  that  the  injured  areas  seemed  drier  and  filled 
with  air,  and  they  showed  a grayish-white  tint  when  first  ex- 
posed but  within  a short  time  turned  red,  then  brown,  mean- 
while shrivelling  somewhat.  Although  kept  for  a week  or 
more  none  of  these  vascular  or  other  injured  tissues  turned 
dark  except  on  the  cut  surface.  AA^e  have  interpreted  this  as 
a mild  type  of  local  injury  in  which  after  certain  cells  were 
killed  their  freed  sap  was  so  absorbed  by  the  adjacent  tissues 
as  to  hasten  their  collapse  and  permit  the  entry  of  air  into  the 
intercellulars. 

In  addition  to  the  symptoms  above  described  potatoes  may 
begin  to  freeze  on  the  outside  before  any  internal  injury  has 
taken  place.  This  occurs  most  commonly  where  potatoes  are 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


touching  a freezing  surface  (PL,  fig.  C)  but  also  often  happens 
in  the  Triumphs  which  have  a very  thin  corky  layer.  Rarely 
it  occurs  in  other  varieties  and  without  any  apparent  cause. 

Symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  as  found  in  storage.  The  occur- 
rence of  early  autumn  frosts  in  northern  Wisconsin  in  both 
1917  and  1918  caught  potatoes  so  frequently  that  there  have 
been  numerous  opportunities  for  observing  the  resultant  effects 
upon  such  potatoes  during  winter  storage.  In  general,  these 


FIG.  9.— DRIED  OUT  NECROTIC  LESIONS 

ITibers  found  in  storage  in  March  'which  appeared  perfectly  sound  externally. 

A— Net  type  of  frost  necrosis  in  which  pitting  has  resulted  from  drying  out. 

B — Rang  type,  very  opaque  discoloration,  also  pitted. 

observations  have  shown  that  under  good  storage  conditions 
and  where  only  internal  necrosis  occurs  the  symptoms  do  not 
change  much.  As  a result,  tubers  showing  the  milder  degrees 
of  internal  frost  necrosis  may  lie  in  the  storage  bin  all  winter 
practically  indistinguishable  from  the  normal  tubers  with 
which  they  are  intermingled.  It  is  true  that  if  the  internal  le- 
sions are  very  extensive  such  tubers  will  tend  to  wilt  or  shrivel 
worse  than  the  normal  ones  and  show  internal  pitting  when  cut 
(fig.  9).  Also,  Pusarium  dry  rot  attacks  them  rather  more 
freipiently,  ])robably  following  up  the  dead  vascular  areas  from 
the  stem  end  tissues.  So  far  as  can  be  judged  from  general 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


19 


observations,  such  Fusarium  invasion  in  its  earlier  stages 
merely  intensifies  the  injuries,  slowly  increasing  their  area  and 
giving  the  tissues  a darker  color,  but  not  essentially  changing 
their  type.  If  this  proceeds  to  the  later  stages  of  dry  rot  the 
distinguishing  symptoms  of  frost  necrosis  are  soon  obliterated. 

Black  heart  symptoms  may  also  complicate  those  of  frost  ne- 
crosis particularly  in  storage.  While  it  is  probable  that  in 
many  cases  these  symptoms  may  have  resulted  from  other  fac- 
tors than  those  which  condition  frost  necrosis  there  is  some 
evidence  that  they  may  occur  as  a re.sult  of  freezing.^  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1919,  some  tubers  were  found  in  Rhinelander,  Wis., 
which  showed  both  the  net  type  of  frost  necrosis  and  black 
heart.  They  had  been  stored  in  a well-ventilated  room  held 
at  temperatures  constantly  below  60°F.,  averaging  nearer 
40'^F.,  and  had  been  subjected  to  one  sudden  freezing  tempera- 
ture when  a door  had  been  left  open  on  a very  cold  day. 

Rate  of  discoloration  of  frozen  tubers.  Since  the  lesions  of 
frost  necrosis  result  directly  from  the  oxidation  of  cells  killed 
during  the  freezing  process,  they  are  not  evident  in  tubers  when 
they  are  first  removed  from  the  freezing  chamber  but  appear 
only  after  such  tubers  have  been  exposed  to  warm  air  for  sev- 
eral hours. 

In  order  to  determine  the  color  changes  which  occur  during 
the  oxidation  process  and  the  time  necessary  for  their  com- 
pletion, experimentally  frozen  tubers  were  thawed  at  different 
temperatures  and  slices  cut  from  them  at  short  intervals  during 
several  days.  It  was  determined  that  the  color  cycle,  like  that 
described  and  pictured  by  Bartholomew  (3,  p.  631)  for  black 
heart,  ranges  through  pinks,  browns,  and  grays  and  seems  to 


^ The  difficulty  of  learning  exactly  the  causal  factors  concerned  with  internal 
discolorations  is  well  illustrated  by  recent  observations  with  two  lots  of  seed 
potatoes.  In  one  case  the  grower  stored  his  potatoes  temporarily  in  pits  in 
the  autumn  and  found  some  “wet”  tubers  indicative  of  freezing  upon  trans- 
ferring later  to  the  winter  storage  cellar.  These  were  sorted  out  and  the 
rest  of  the  tubers,  some  of  which  were  preserved  for  seed,  kept  well  and  be- 
gan to  sprout  normally  the  following  May.  When  cut  open  during  the  winter 
storage  period  frequent  cases  of  frost  necrotic  discoloration  were  detected. 
Preparatory  to  planting  the  tubers  were  disinfected  in  May  and  then  left  in 
the  open  for  several  days  to  dry  and  start  new  sprouts,  being  covered  with 
blankets.  Upon  cutting  this  seed  stock  it  was  found  to  show  much  black 
heart  in  addition  to  frost  necrosis.  The  grower  suspected  frost  as  responsible 
for  all  his  injury  but  E.  T.  Bartholomew,  who  examined  this  with  us,  diag- 
nosed the  black  heart  as  resulting  from  heat  consequent  on  exposure  to  the 
sun  following  disinfection.  This  was  confirmed  by  similar  exposure  of  an- 
other lot  of  seed  tubens,  known  to  be  free  of  internal  discolorations.  Leaving 
these  a few  hours  exposed  to  hot  .June  sun  was  enough  to  induce  a consider- 
able amount  of  black  heart.  MTiile  this  heat  injury  is  less  likely  to  occur  at 
digging  time  it  is  nevertheless  possible,  especially  with  the  earlv  or  southern 
crop. 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


develop  simultaneously  throughout  the  injured  tissues.  The 
time  required  for  the  ultimate  dark  color  to  be  reached  de- 
pends in  part  upon  the  air  temperature ; thus,  at  temperatures 
of  10°  to  15°C.  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  were  required,  while 
at  25°  to  30 °C.  only  five  or  six  hours  were  necessary.  There 
was  no  evidence  that  the  rate  of  thawing  influenced  the  degree 
of  injury  nor  that  tissues  which  had  received  severe  freezing 
injuries  blackened  more  rapidly  than  did  those  with  lesser  in- 
juries. 

Frost  Necrosis  Symptoms  Contrasted  With  Those  of  Other 
Tuber  Maladies^ 

In  freshly  frozen  tubers  frost  necrosis  may,  in  general,  be 
easil}^  distinguished  from  other  potato  tuber  diseases  by  the 
distribution  and  color  of  the  lesions.  Sometimes  it  may  happen 
that  the  lesions  shown  by  a single  tuber  may  be  so  little  char- 
acteristic as  to  leave  one  in  doubt,  but  if  several  tubers  are 
available,  confident  judgment  is,  usually  possible.  If,  however, 
such  tubers  have  lain  for  some  time  following  the  injury,  sec- 
ondary storage  rots  may  set  in  and  complicate  matters.  Since 
the  same  forms  of  storage  rot  may  follow  secondarily  after 
various  other  initial  injuries  the  only  recourse  in  such  cases  is 
to  seek  for  as  clear  evidence  as  is  obtainable  concerning  the 
character  of  the  initial  injuries  and  base  final  judgment  upon 
this.”  It  is  also  helpful  in  diagnosis  of  injuries  in  stored  pota- 
toes to  know  the  region  from  which  the  tubers  came  since,  to 


^ Since  detailed  descriptions  of  the  above-mentioned  tuber  diseases  occur  in 
current  phytopathological  literature  no  attempt  is  made  here  at  their  full 
characterization.  Should  this  be  desired  in  any  case  the  following  citations 
will  furnish  illustrated  accounts:  Late  Might  dry  rot,  Jones,  L.  R.,  Giddings, 

N.  J.,  and  Lutman,  B.  F.,  Investigations  of  the  potato  fungus  Phytophthora 
infestans.  U.  S.  D.  A.,  Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  245,  pi.  2,  1912  ; Fusarium  dry  rot, 
Orton,  C.  R.,  Potato  diseases.  Penn.  State  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  140,  p.  26,  fig. 
13,  1916  : Bacterial  brown  rot.  Smith,  E.  F.,  Bacteria  in  relation  to  plant  dis- 
ease, V.  3,  p.  174,  pi.  23,  1914  ; Net  necrosis,  Orton,  W.  A.,  Potato  wilt,  leaf-roll 
and  related  diseases.  U.  S.  D.  A.,  Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  64  (professional  paper), 
p.  8-9,  pi.  2,  fig.  2,  1914  : Black  heart,  Bartholomew,  E.  T.,  Black  heart  of 
potatoes.  Phytopathology,  v.  3,  pp.  180-182,  pi.  19,  1913  ; Internal  brown  spot, 
Horne,  A.  S.,  The  symptoms  of  intemial  disease  and  sprain  (stj'eak-disease) 
in  potato.  Jour.  Agr.  Sci.,  v.  3,  pp.  322-333,  pi.  19,  1910. 

2 Critical  attention  has  been  given  to  the  symptoms  of  frost  necros's  as  it 
appears  in  the  city  markets,  especially  in  the  markets  of  Chicago  where 
northern  grown  potatoes  are  handled,  by  Geo.  K.  K.  Link  and  M.  IV.  Gardner. 
Their  observations  were  continued  over  a period  of  sufficient  duration  to 
afford  an  opportunity  to  study  both  initial  frost  injuries  and  those  compli- 
cated by  storage  rots  at  different  seasons.  The  writers  have  had  access  to 
their  results  in  an  unpublished  manuscript  which  will  be  issued  later  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  as  a handbook  of  diseases  of  vege- 
tables occurring  under  market,  storage,  and  transit  conditions,  prepared  un- 
der the  direction  of  W.  A.  Orton  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  AV.  M. 
Scott  of  the  Bureau  of  Markets. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


21 


one  acquainted  with  conditions,  this  may  give  important  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  probable  initial  causes.  The  commonest  of 
such  types  of  tuber  injury  initiated  by  factors  other  than  freez- 
ing are  as  follows: 

1.  Dry  rot.  Of  these,  late  blight  rot  caused  by  Pliijioplitlwm 
infestans  is  distinguished  from  frost  necrosis  by  the  fact  that 
the  initial  lesions  are  strictly  superficial,  the  discoloration 
rarely  proceeding  deeper  than  the  cambial  region  and  with  no 
tendency  to  follow  the  vascular  distribution  as  does  frost  ne- 
crosis. 

The  common  types  of  Fusarium  dry  rot,  of  which  examples 
occur  in  practically  every  lot  of  storage  potatoes,  as  a rule 
show  conspicuous  external  lesions  and  when  cut  open  the  un- 
invaded flesh  is  uniformly  bright  and  normal  in  appearance 
whereas  freezing  injuries  show  as  persistent  discolorations. 

2.  Wet  rot,  soft  rot.  Following  severe  freezing  injuries  to  po- 
tatoes all  fully  frozen  tissues  collapse  immediately  upon  thawing. 
Often  only  part  of  a tuber  is  so  involved,  in  Avhich  case  the  re- 
maining flesh  if  cut  open  may  show  the  net  or  blotch  lesions 
characteristic  of  frost  necrosis.  As  a rule,  however,  bacterial 
wet  rot  immediately  follows  as  a secondary  trouble  and  pro- 
ceeds to  the  destruction  of  the  entire  tuber.  In  case  of  severe 
attacks  by  the  bacterial  blackleg  disease  the  tubers  may  show 
a soft  rot  either  while  in  the  soil  or  soon  after  harvest.  In 
most  cases,  however,  such  rapid  wet  rot  is  a secondary  devel- 
opment following  late  blight  or  some  other  initial  injury  to  the 
tuber,  especially  in  heavy  wet  soils. 

3.  Ring  necrosis.  Stem-end  bundle  blackening  occurs  in 
some  degree  in  many  potato  tubers,  showing  as  a darkening 
when  the  stem  end  is  cut  across.  This  may  be  very  shallow 
(perhaps  one-eighth  inch  or  less)  in  which  case  it  is  considered 
non-parasitic  in  origin,  or  it  may  extend  well  through  the 
length  of  the  tuber,  in  which  case  it  is  usually  attributed  to 
Fusarium  invasion.  The  former  type  should  lead  to  no  con- 
fusion with  frost  necrosis  but  the  latter  may.  In  general,  it 
may  be  differentiated  by  its  being  more  strictly  limited  to  the 
vascular  elements  of  the  cambial  ring  without  the  attendant 
net  necrosis  or  blotch  lesions  of  frost  necrosis. 

4.  Brown  rot.  This  name  is  applied  to  the  bacterial  disease, 
caused  by  Bacillus  solanacearum,  which  may  cause  a wet,  slimy 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


rot  of  the  vascular  rino;.  It  is,  however,  readily  distinguish- 
able, as  a rule,  by  the  showing  of  a typical  grayish  bacterial  exu- 
date from  the  vascular  elements  in  the  earlier  stages,  by  the 
wetter  condition  of  the  tuber  in  the  later  stages,  and  by  its 
restriction  to  sonthern  stock,  whereas  frost  necrosis  is  to  be  ex- 
pected in  northern  stock. 

5.  Net  necrosis.  This  name  has  been  applied  to  a condition 
where  the  vascular  elements  brown  more  or  less  throughout  the 
flesh  of  the  tuber  even  during  the  developmental  stage,  i.  e.,  be- 
fore digging.  This  is  considered  non-parasitic  and  is  inherit- 
able from  generation  to  generation.  It  seems  impossible  by  ap- 
pearance alone  to  distinguish  confidently  between  this  inherit- 
able net  necrosis  and  the  net  type  of  frost  necrosis.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  where  one  is  dealing  with  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  examples  of  necrotic  tubers,  there  will  probably  be  little 
difficulty  in  correct  diagnosis.  In  the  case  of  frost  necrosis 
only  a part  of  such  tubers  should  show  lesions  of  the  net  ne- 
crosis Type,  others  showing  ring  and  blotch  discolorations. 
Probably  in  most  eases  some  significant  evidence  may  be  ob- 
tainable also  as  to  the  history  of  the  sample,  including  liability 
to  exposure  to  freezing  temperatures. 

6.  Black  heart.  The  typical  black  heart  lesions,  resulting 
from  high  temperature  storage  or  asphyxiation  through  con- 
finement with  insufficient  free  oxygen,  consist  of  clearly  de- 
limited internal  discolorations.  In  certain  cases  of  frost  ne- 
crosis as  already  cited  (see  p.  19)  J.  P.  Bennett  has  found 
black  heart  symptoms  where  tlie  history  of  the  tubers  seemed 
to  preclude  the  above  types  of  asphyxiation.  In  any  case,  this 
is  not  likely  to  be  common  or  seriously  confusing. 

7.  Internal  brown  spot.  This  non-parasitic  and  non-infec- 
tions malady  is  characterized  by  definite  brown  spotting  of  the 
interior  flesh  of  the  tuber.  It  is  readily  distinguishable  by  its 
1)1*0 vni  color  from  the  internal  grayish  or  purplish  black  frost 
blotch  necrosis.  The  distinct ian  is  made  surer  by  the  absence 
in  this  brown  spot  malady  of  any  tendency  toward  vascular 
discoloi*ation  of  the  ring  or  net  types  so  commonly  associated 
with  frost  necrosis.  According  to  Horne’s  description  inter- 
nal brown  spot  lesions  may  be  delimited  by  cork  cells  in  which 
case  microscopical  examination  should  assure  their  differenti- 
ation from  fi’ost  necrosis. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


The  Amount  and  Types  of  Frost  Necrosis  Which  Occur 
AT  Different  Temperatures 

Because  later  experiments  (pp.  35-36)  show  that  the  rate  of 
fall  of  temperatui’e  is  one  of  the  factors  M'hieh  seem  to  influ- 
ence the  amount  of  injury  tubers  sustain  Mflien  chilled,  the  fol- 
loM'ing  data  are  compiled  entirely  from  the  1918  experiments 
in  which  the  Potter  freezing  machine  -was  used.  They  sIiom’  a 
certain  uniformity  in  the  types  of  injury  Mdiich  occur  at  the 
same  temperatures,  but  also  indicate  the  striking  individual 
resistance  of  tubers  in  many  cases.  Unless  otheinvise  indicated, 
tubers  of  the  variety  Rural  New  Yorker  were  used  in  these 
tests,  and  the  air  temperature  was  dropped  at  the  rate  of 
3V2°C.  per  hour  after  the  zero  point  was  reached.  The  per- 
centage of  injury  as  shown  in  these  tables  is  not  very  conclu- 
sive since  only  10  or  15  tubers  at  most  were  exposed  at  one  time. 
However,  they  correspond  in  general  with  the  data  obtained 
in  the  earlier  experiments  where  larger  numbers  of  potatoes 
were  exposed  under  uniform  conditions  out-of-doors  and  where 
individual  resistance  also  showed  strikingly. 

Injury  above  -3.2 °C.  Muller-Thurgau  (4,  p.  147)  held  that 
the  critical  temperature  at  Avhich  potatoes  regularly  began  to 
freeze  was  -3.2°C.  and  Applenian  (2.  p.  333)  stated  that  this 
process  began  at  temperatures  ranging  from  -2.2°  to  -3.3 °C. 
In  our  experiments,  therefore,  the  attempt  was  made  to  recon- 
cile their  results.  In  numerous  experiments  tubers  were  held 
at  -2°C.  for  hours  (in  some  cases  for  48  hours)  and  no  injury 
ever  resulted.  Similarly,  temperatures  ranging  from  -2.0°  to 
-2.5°C.  were  tested  and  found  to  be  too  high  to  produce  injury. 
Bet^veen  -2.5°  and  -3.0° C.,  hov'ever,  although  frost  necrosis 
did  not  ahvays  occur,  it  did  in  perhaps  50  to  75  per  cent  of  the 
experiments,  depending  upon  the  length  of  the  exposure  and 
the  individual  susceptibility  of  the  tubers  under  trial.  The 
following  table  gives  data  as  to  amounts  and  predominating 
types  of  injury  from  several  of  the  experiments  in  vdiich  tem- 
peratures of  from  -2.5°  to  -3.2°C.  were  used. 


TYPES  OP  FROST  NECROSIS  IN  MARKET  POTATOES 


A.— STEM  END  INJURY 

Cross  section  of  the  stem  end  showing  irregular  blotches.  The  whitish  areas  together 
with  the  wilted  appearance  of  the  surface  ot  the  tuber  indicate  drying  out  which  often 
follows  freezing  injury  in  storage.  The  general  distribution  of  lesions  in  such  tubers  is 
well  represented  in  figure  E,  a longitudinal  section  of  another  tuber  in  which  injury  is 
restricted  to  the  stem  end. 


B.— GENERAL  DISCOLORATION  OF  STEM  END  TISSUES 

Cross  section  of  the  stem  end  in  which  blotches  are  accompanied  by  a general  dis- 
coloration. Whitish  areas  in  the  cortex  again  indicate  drying  out. 


C.— RING  DISCOLORATION  AND  ONE-SIDED  FREEZING  INJURY 

Cross  section  of  a tuber  one  side  (left)  of  which  was  evidently  in  contact  with  a 
freezing  surface.  The  double  ring  of  darkened  vascular  elements  may  have  resulted 
from  the  same  exposure  as  did  the  one-sided  injury  or  from  another  exposure  to  freez- 
ing temperatures. 


D.— NET  TYPE  OF  FROST  NECROSIS 

Section  of  a tuber  which  shows  a very  uniform  darkening  or  browning  of  the 
vascular  elements  throughout  the  tuber.  This  symptom  is  very  common  in  turgid 
tubers  which  have  been  exposed  to  temperatures  approaching  — 5°C.  Notice  how 
sharply  the  injury  is  limited  to  the  vascular  elements. 


E.— STEM  END  INJURY  OF  THE  BLOTCH  TYPE 

Longitudinal  section  showing  discoloration  and  drying  out  of  the  outer  tuber  tissues. 
Note  that  the  injury  is  confined  to  the  upper  portion  of  this  tuber,  which  is  the  ?tem 
end.  See  also  figures  A and  B. 


Ih’produced  from  hand-colored  photographs  made  under  the  direction  of  (r.  K.  K. 
Link  and  M.  W.  Gardner  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Imlustry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


27 


Table  I — Types  and  Amounts  of  Injury  at  — 2.5°  to  — 3.2°C.  '27.5° 

TO  26.2°P  ) 


Exp. 

No. 

Exposure 

1 

Injury 

Temperature 

°C. 

Period 

Frost  necrosis 

1 

Frozen  solid 

1 

-2.5° 

6 hrs. 

none 

none 

2 

-2.5° 

12  hrs. 

blotch  (faint),  20% 

3 

-2.8° 

12  hrs. 

,15% 

4 

-2.5°  to -3.0° 

18  hrs. 

“ (sooty),  30% 

“ 1 

5 

-2.6°  to  -3.2° 

18  hrs. 

and  ring-.  60% 

6 

-3.0°  to  -3.8° 

18  hrs.  1 

“ “ . 80% 

10% 

7 

-2.8°  to  -3.2° 

24  hrs.  1 

, 100% 

80% 

’ In  experiment  No.  4 two  tubers  which  had  been  peeled  were  included.  These  were 
frozen  solid  and  the  unpeeled  were  not.  See  farther  data  bearing-  on  this.  Table  III. 
Exp.  8,  Table  IV,  Exp.  2,  and  later  discussion  of  this  point. 


From  Table  I it  appears  that  long  exposures  to  critical  tem- 
peratures are  conducive  to  the  production  of  the  blotch  type  of 
injury,  and  that  they  ultimately  result  in  the  tuliers  freezing 
solid.  The  fact  that  this  blotch  type  of  discoloration  is  found 
commonly  in  field  frozen  specimens  and  that  it  occurs  so  regu- 
larly from  prolonged  exposure  at  these  high  temperatures  is 
significant.  Occasionally,  however,  the  ring  type  is  produced 
at  these  temperatures. 

Injury  at  -3°  to  -4.5° C.  The  temperatures  below  -3°C.  were 
employed  in  further  experiments  to  determine  the  time  during 
which  such  temperatures  must  be  maintained  in  order  to  pro- 
duce frost  necrosis  and  also  to  furnish  material  for  studying 
symptoms  of  tubers  frozen  at  these  lower  temperatures.  In 
storage  and  transportation  tubers  are  often  accidentally  sub- 
jected to  dangerously  low  temperatures  for  short  periods. 
Table  II  gives  the  result  of  several  experiments  in  which  these 
temperatures  were  employed. 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


Table  IF  -Types  and  Amounts  ob'  Injury  at — B.2°  to — 4.4°C.  (20.2° 

to  24°F.) 


Blxposure 

Injury 

Uvp. 

No. 

Temperature 

°C. 

Period 

Frost  necrosis 

solid 

1 

—3.2  to  3.7 

5 hours 

Blotch,  10% 

None 

2 

—3.2  to  -4.0 

5 hours 

Blotch  and  ringr,  20%  .... 

None 

3 

—3.6  to  —3.9 

3 hours 

None 

None 

4 

—3.7  to  —3.9 

2 hours,  30  mhi 

None 

None 

5 

-3.6  to  —4.2 

5 hours 

Blotch  and  ring",  50%  .... 

None 

() 

—3.5  to  —4.2 

12  hours 

None 

100% 

7 

—4.0  to  —4.3 

3 hours 

Net  and  ring',  60% 

None 

8 

—4.2  to  -4.4 

2 hours,  30  min 

Net  and  ring-,  50% 

None 

Injury  at  -5°  to  -5.6°  and  at  -6°  to  -8°C.  The  results  of 
both  the  1916  and  1918  experiments,  show  that  the  highest  per- 
centage of  net  necrotic  discoloration  occurs  after  short  ex- 
posures to  temperatures  of  -5°  to  -5.6°C.  These  are  not  exclu- 
sive of  other  types  but  they  predominate. 


Table  III — Types  and  Amount  of  Injury  at  — 5°  to  — 5.0°C.  (2B° 

TO  21.9°F.) 


BIxposuhe 

Injury 

h.xp. 

No.  Temp. 

1 °C. 

_l 

Period 

F'rost  necrosis 

Frozen 

solid 

1 hr..  30  min 

blotch  and  net,  30% 

noiip 

1 -5 

] 50  “ 

I'ing' arid  net,  100% 

3 1 -5 

blotch  and  net,  50% 

4 —5 

3 

blotch,  70% 

30% 

5 1 -5.5 

1 ",  30  min 

ring’  and  net,  20% 

none 

1 

",  50% 

6 1 —5 . 4 

V ■' 

l>lotr*h  and  net,  60% 

8 1 —5.6  1 

1 " 

ring-  and  net,  60% 

2 peeled 

Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


29 


Table  — Types  and  Amount  op  Injury  at — 6°  to  — 8°C.  (21.2° 

TO  17.0°F.) 


Exp. 

No. 

Exposure 

Injury 

Temp. 

°C. 

Period 

Frost  necrosis 

Frozen 

solid 

1 

—6.0 

1 hr 

net,  80% 

nonp 

2 

—6.2 

30  min 

“ and  rinK",  20% 

(2  iieeled) 

3 

— 6 . .5 

45  “ 

“ Idotch,  60% 

nonp 

4 

—6.8 

30  “ 

“ riiiff,  40% 

5 

—7.0 

1 hr 

“ “ l)lotch,  70% 

6 

-7.4 

45  min 

“ “ ••  , 100%.... 

“ 

7 

—7.8 

2 hrs 

100% 

8 

-8.0 

1 ‘ 

net  and  l)lotch,  100% 

0 

The  net  type  seems  almost  as  prevalent  at  these  lower  tem- 
peratures (-6°  to  -8°C.)  as  at  the  next  higher  (-5°  to  -6°C.) 
but  in  each  case  where  it  is,  recorded  as  being  present  the  blotch 
predominated.  In  experiment  No.  8 the  net  type  occurred  in 
Triumph  potatoes  while  the  l)lotch  refers  to  the  condition  in 
the  Rurals. 

Not  only  do  these  experiments  show  that  net  necrosis  de- 
velops very  commonly  as  a result  of  short  exposures  at  rather 
extreme  temperatures,  but  it  has  been  found  as  the  predominat- 
ing type  in  cases  of  freezing  injury  to  storage  potatoes  where  the 
temperature  has  been  known  to  drop  suddenly.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  rarely  been  observed  in  cases  of  field  injury  before 
digging. 

Injury  at  -10.5°  to  -11.7°C.  Potatoes  freeze  solid  at  tem- 
peratures below -10°C.  if  they  are  exposed  for  any  considerable 
time.  Internal  frost  necrosis  develops  promptly  in  all  such 
tubers  with  the  blotch  type  predominating  over  the  net.  It  is 
also  of  interest  to  note  that  at  these  extreme  temperatures 
freezing  begins  more  often  at  the  surface  and  proceeds  iiiAvard. 
Thus,  in  experiments  3,  4,  and  5 of  Table  V the  tubers  reported 
as  frozen  solid  were  not  entirely  frozen  but  had  begun  thus 
to  freeze  from  the  surface,  and  in  some  the  peripheral  half- 
inch  Avas  thus  killed  but  the  interior  was  intact. 


30 


Wisconsin  Eesearch  Bulletin  46 


Table  V — Types  and  Amount  op  Injury  at  — 10.5°  to  — 11.7°C. 
(13.1°  TO  10.9°F.) 


Exp. 

No. 

Etposure 

Injury 

Temix  j Period 

°C.  1 j 

Frost  necrosis 

Frozen  solid 

-10.5 

45  mi7iiites 

liloteh  a)id  net,  70% 

none 
30% 
60% 
60% 
90  fo 

2 

-11.0 

30  minutes. 

“ “ 70% 

3 

-11.2 

1 hour 

blotch,  40% 

4 

-11,7 

45  minutes 

; . 40% 

,5 

-11.7 

1 hour 

, 10% 

Relation  of  Tuber  Condition  to  Susceptibility  to  Freezing 

Throughout  the  course  of  these  investigations  individual 
susceptibility  of  tubers  to  freezing  injury  appeared  constantly  in 
field  and  storage  as  well  as  in  experimentally  frozen  specimens, 
and  it  seemed  probable  that  it  might  be  explained  by  some  in- 
ternal condition  of  the  tuber  which  could  be  produced  experi- 
mentally if  the  external  factors  were  controlled.  Consequently, 
potatoes  at  different  stages  of  growth  which  had  been  subjected 
to  varying  storage  conditions  were  exposed  to  similar  freezing 
temperatures  and  the  results  compared  critically. 

Relative  resistance  of  mature  and  immature  tubers.  During 
the  season  potatoes  of  different  stages  of  maturity  were  tested 
for  resistance.  Three  plantings  of  the  Rural  New  Yorkers 
were  made  on  June  1,  July  13,  and  August  10,  respectively. 
All  were  dug  on  October  3,  at  which  time  the  tubers  from  the 
first  planting  were  mature,  those  from  the  second  about  half- 
grown,  while  those  from  the  third  measured  from  one-half  to 
two-thirds,  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Soon  after  harvest,  when 
these  tubers  Avere  still  turgid  and  unmodified  by  storage,  trials 
were  made  in  Avhich  se\mral  tubers  from  each  of  these  plantings 
wei‘c  exposed  to  the  same  freezing  temperatures  but  no  consistent 
difference  in  susceptibility  appeared.  To  be  sure,  in  some  trials 
a larger  number  of  mature  than  immature  tubers  remained 
normal,  but  in  others  the  immature  tubers  seemed  more  resis- 
tant to  freezing  temperatures.  As  is  common  Avith  turgid 
Rurals  the  net  symptoms  predominated  in  all  of  these  tubers. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


31 


Figure  10  shows  three  of  these  potatoes,  one  from  each  plant- 
ing, which  were  exposed  together  to  -6.5° C.  for  about  two  hours. 

Influence  of  relative  turgidity  of  tubers.  It  is  a natural 
supposition  that  the  relative  turgidity  of  the  tuber  tissues  may 
influence  their  susceptibility  to  freezing  injury.  In  some  of  the 
earlier  trials  partly  wilted  tubers  were  exposed  along  with  turgid 


FIG.  10.— INFLUENCE  OP  MATURITY  UPON  SUSCEPTIBILITY 
TO  FROST  INJURY' 

Sections  of  three  tubers  of  different  stages  of  maturity  which 
were  exposed  together  to  a temperature  of  —6.5°  C.  for  two  hours. 
All  w’ere  harvested  on  October  10:  A from  seed  planted  June  1, 
B from  seed  planted  July  13,  and  O from  seed  planted  August  10. 


ones,  and  no  consistent  differences  developed.  Such  comparisons 
have  been  made  at  various  times  during  three  seasons  with  like 
results.  Owing  to  the  individual  variations  between  tubers  it  is 
difficult  to  make  as  convincing  comparisons  as  might  be  desired, 
and  it  is  impracticable  to  use  a divided  tuber  for  such  experi- 
mental purposes  because  of  the  possible  disturbing  effect  of  cut 
surfaces  upon  supercooling. 

In  an  effort  to  establish  moisture  conditions  which  were  as 
nearly  uniform  as  possible,  in  some  later  experiments  turgid 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


Rurals  were  carefully  paired  off  as  to  size  and  weight,  the 
pairs  numbered  as  1 and  V,  2 and  2',  etc.  Numbers  1,  2,  3,  etc., 
were  placed  in  a damp  chamber  and  V,  2',  3',  etc.,  in  a desic- 
cator and  both  stored  at  a temperature  of  10° C.  Several  pairs 
of  tubers,  e.  g.,  1 and  V,  2 and  2',  etc.,  were  removed  and  ex- 
posed to  freezing  temperatures  each  week  for  a period  of  two 
months  and  although  the  tubers  used  may  have  gained  slightly 
or  lost  considerably  in  weight  during  storage  their  suscepti- 
bility to  freezing  was  not  consistently  altered. 

Tables  VI  and  VII  show  the  results  of  two  experiments 
which  give  an  idea  of  the  distribution  of  injury  in  the  two  lots 
of  potatoes. 

Table  VI — Symptoms  op  Frost  Necrosis  as  Shown  in  Pairs  op  Tubers 
Which  Were  Stored  Under  Dipperent  Moisture  Conditions  por 
6 Weeks  and  Then  Exposed  Together  to — 4°  to — 7°  C.  (24.8°  to 
19.4°  F.)  POR  2 Hours 


Tuber  Weights  In  Grams 

Per  Cent  Gain 
( + ) OR  Loss  (-) 

Frost  Injury 

Oriff- 
nal  1 

After  6 weeks 

Damp 

chamber 

Desic- 

cator 

Damp  chamber 

Desiccator 

Damp 

chamber 

Desic- 

cator 

. 

31 

34 

29 

-i-9 

-16 

net (faint) 

blotch  (sooty) 

55 

55 

48 

0 

-13 

normal 

ring- 

34 

34 

29 

0 

—15 

ring- 

“ 

50 

50 

44 

0 

! -12 

normal 

51 

51 

48 

0 

-6 

* As  indicated  al)ove  each  one  of  a pair  of  experimental  tubers  had  the  same  orig- 
nal  weiyht. 


A comparison  of  these  results  shows  that  loss  of  turgidit>^ 
does  not  consistently  alter  susceptibility.  For  example,  the 
desiccated  tuber  of  the  second  pair  lost  13  per  cent  of  its  or- 
iginal weight  (55  grams)  and  was  injured  upon  exposure  to 
freezing  temperatures  while  its  turgid  mate  remained  normal 
but  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  pairs  the  opposite  condition  ob- 
tains. There  the  desiccated  tuber  of  the  fourth  pair  lost  12 
per  cent  of  its  original  weight  (50  grams),  that  of  the  fifth 
pair  6 jier  cent  of  its  original  weight  (51  grams),  and  yet  both 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


33 


apparently  gained  in  resistance  to  freezing.  Results  of  the 
same  type  appear  in  Table  VII. 

Table  VII — Symptoms  of  Frost  Necrosis  as  Shown  in  Pairs  of  Tu- 
bers Which  Were  Stored  Under  Different  AIoisture  Condi- 
tions FOH  6 Weeks  and  Then  Exposed  to  — 2.5°  to  — 7.0°C.  (27.5° 
to  19.4°  F.)  FOR  2 Hours 


Tuber  weig'hts. 

grams 

Per  cent,  gain  (-1-)  or 
loss  ( — ) 

Frost  injury 

Orig-inal 

After  6 weeks 

Damp 

chamber 

Desic  - 
cator 

Damp  chamljer 

, Desiccator 

Damp 

chamber 

1 

Desic- 

cator 

2.3  ; 

23 

21 

0 

-9 

normal 

1 ring  (faint) 

43 

4.5 

41 

+2 

2 

ring  (opauue). . 

net 

28 

28 

19 

0 

—32 

black  heart 

40 

40 

38 

0 

— 5 

■■  (faint) 

net  (faint) 

61 

61 

58 

0 

—8 

normal 

Here  the  desiccated  tubers  of  the  first  and  fifth  pairs  seem 
less  resistant  and  in  the  other  cases  the  symptoms  differ  only 
slightly  in  the  corresponding  pairs.  However,  where  the  tuber 
was  very  much  wilted,  as  was  the  desiccated  one  of  the  third 
pair,  which  lost  32  per  cent  of  its  water  content,  intense  symp- 
toms were  produced  which  resemble  black  heart.  This  is  an  ex- 
treme form  but  it  occurs  not  uncommonly,  and  it  is  indicative 
cf  the  increase  of  sootiness  of  necrotic  symptoms  with  decrease 
of  water. 

Relation  of  sugar  content.  Miiller-Thurgau  (6,  p.  493)  has 
shown  that  the  relative  sugar  content  in  the  tuber  may  influ- 
ence its  freezing  point.  For  example,  by  preliminary  storing  at 
low  temperatures  he  raised  the  sugar  content  from  0.53  per 
cent  to  2.21  per  cent.  His  trials  then  showed  that  the  true 
freezing  point  with  these  tubers  was  lowered  from  -1.0° C.  for 
those  of  the  normal  .sugar  content,  to  -1.5°C.  for  tho.se  of  the 
excessive  sugar  content.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  his 
trials  he  secured  extremes  of  variation  far  beyond  those  which 
are  ordinarily  met  with  in  normal  potato  tubers  and  even  so 
the  influence  upon  the  freezing  point  was  not  proportionately 
great.  This  factor  may.  however,  be  influential  in  determining 
the  relative  injury  to  the  different  tissue  elements  in  the  tuber. 


34 


AVisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


Influence  of  wounds  and  bruises  upon  susceptibility.  The 

presence  or  absence  of  a film  of  moisture  on  the  exposed  sur- 
face of  a wounded  or  bruised  tuber  seems  to  determine  the  in- 
fluence of  such  wounds  and  bruises  upon  susceptibility  to  freez- 
ing injury.  When  wounds  or  bruises  are  corked  or  healed  over 
as  in  the  case  of  common  scab,  dry  rot,  or  mechanical  injuries, 
they  have  no  important  influence  upon  the  susceptibility  of  the 
tubers.  Even  freshly  cut  surfaces  often  seem  not  to  cause 
freezing  to  take  place  at  higher  temperatures  as  Mliller-Thur- 
gau  (4,  p.  172)  predicted.  In  his  experiments  with  freshly 
peeled  tubers  he  found  that  supercooling  was  prevented  by  the 
presence  of  the  surface  film  of  exuded  sap  on  such  tubers.  He 
explained  this  as,  being  due  to  the  fact  that  this  free  sap  began 
to  crystallize  at  the  freezing  point  of  sap  (about  -1.0° C.)  and 
that  when  the  sap  throughout  the  tuber  was  chilled  to  this  de- 
gree the  presence  of  crystals  on  the  outside  caused  the  freez- 
ing process  to  extend  from  the  outside  inward,  without  the 
usual  supercooling  phenomenon.  In  our  experiments  tubers 
were  freshly  cut  in  different  ways,  some  were  peeled  and  some 
split  in  half  longitudinally,  and  from  others  slices  were  cut, 
most  often  from  the  stem  end.  It  was  found  that  peeled  pota- 
toes usually  froze  solid  at  temperatures  which  produced  only 
minor  injuries,  if  any,  in  sound  tubers.  In  a few  cases,  how- 
ever, typical  necrotic  symptoms  appeared  in  these  peeled  tu- 
bers just  as  in  the  case  of  tubers  with  surfaces  only  partially 
exposed.  In  some  cases  freezing  started  on  these  cut  surfaces 
and  progressed  inward  for  two  or  three  millimeters  while  the 
usual  necrotic  symptoms  appeared  in  the  deeper-lying  tuber 
tissues. 

Relative  susceptibility  of  sprout  and  tuber  tissues.  Sprouts 
have  in  our  experiments  always  proved  more  resistant  to  freezing 
injury  than  the  tissues  of  the  tuber  from  which  they  arise.  As 
a result,  if  a sprouted  tuber  is  exposed  to  freezing  temperatures 
the  parent  tulier  may  show  considerable  internal  necrosis  and 
have  its  sprouts  unaffected  (fig.  11).  Since  this  has  an  im- 
portant healing  upon  the  relation  of  frost  necrosis  to  the  value 
of  potato  seed  stock,  numerous  trial  plantings  were  made, 
some  in  sand  in  the  greenhouse  bench  and  some  in  the  field  soil. 
In  certain  of  tliese  experiments,  in  order  to  make  closer  com- 
])arisons,  the  trial  tubers  were  cut  in  halves,  one  half  being 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


35 


PIG.  11.— EFFEOT  OP  FROST  OX  VIABILITY  OF  TUBERS 

A and  B (Upper) — Sections  of  two  tubers  which  were  stored  at  25°  C.  for 
three  months,  chilled  at  —5°  O.  for  two  hours,  then  returned  to  the  25°  C. 
temperature. 

O and  D (Lower)— Control  tubers  held  constantly  at  25°  C. 

Sprouts  had  developed  on  all  tubers  when  A and  B were  frozen.  Freezing  produced 
necrotic  symptoms  in  A and  B without  apparent  injury  to  the  sprouts  which,  however, 
continued  to  grow  much  less  vigorously  than  did  those  of  the  control  tubers,  as  is 
shown  in  this  photograph  taken  three  months  after  A and  B were  chilled.  The  photo- 
graph also  indicates  the  lack  of  storage  rots  and  drying  out  in  necrotic  tubers,  even 
where  stored  at  such  a relatively  high  temperature. 


36 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


held  as  a control,  the  other  chilled  after  the  surface  was  well 
dried  olf.  In  practically  all  cases  such  exposed  tubers  retained 
viability  even  where  there  was  internal  necrosis  but  the  sprouts 
started  more  slowly,  and  where  the  frost  necrosis  was  very  ex- 
tensive the  parent  tuber  rotted  before  the  sprout  developed  in- 
dependent roots.  As  a result,  planting  frost-necrotic  tubers  in 
the  field  yielded  only  about  50  per  cent  of  a stand.  Those 
plants  which  survived,  although  they  started  more  slowly, 
made  rapid  gains  later  and  were  ultimately  as  vigorous  and 
productive  as  the  normal  controls.  The  tubers  thus  secured 
from  this  frost-necrotic  seed  were  in  turn  all  examined  for  any 
traces  of  vascular  necrosis,  and  found  to  be  free.  While  this 
was  to  lie  expected,  it  is  worthy  of  note  as  again  emphasizing 
the  distinction  between  net  necrosis  induced  by  freezing  injury 
and  the  hereditary  net  necrosis  from  which  the  symptoms  may 
sometimes  be  indistinguishable. 

While,  therefore,  in  general,  it  is  inadvisable  to  plant  tubers 
showing  any  large  amount  of  frost  necrosis,  nevertheless 
slightly  necrotic  tubers  may  safely  be  used  if  one  cuts  them  and 
rejects  pieces  Avhich  show  lesions  extensive  enough  to  predis- 
pose to  rot.^ 


Supercooling  and  Ice  Crystallization  Associated  with 
Frost  Necrosis 

No  attempt  has  been  made  in  connection  with  these  studies 
to  follow  the  microscopic  phenomena  associated  with  the 
changes  in  the  potato,  but  it  has  been  the  conclusion  of  pre- 
vious investigators  that  the  formation  of  ice  crystals  in  the  sap 
is  antecedent  to  the  death  of  such  plant  tissues.  So  far  as  our 
evidence  bears  upon  the  matter,  it  is  in  accord  with  this  idea. 
In  most  cases  where  frost  necrosis  resulted  it  was,  indeed,  pos- 
sible to  detect  ice  crystals  in  the  tissues  either  by  tbeir  macro- 
scopic appearance  if  the  tubers  were  immediately  cut  open,  or 
by  bolding  the  suspected  tuber  close  to  one’s  ear  and  pressing 


^Supplementing-  IMiiller-Thurgau’s  1882  work  (5)  Wollny  (8)  attempted  to 
determine  the  influence  of  prolonged  cold  storage  upon  the  viability  of  tubers. 
He  took  normal  tubers,  divided  tiiem  into  longitudinal  halves  and  stored  one 
set  of  halves  in  a cold  chamber  at  0°C.  and  the  controls  at  10°  C.  After  35 
days  he  planted  each  set  separately  and  recorded  growth  throughout  the  sea- 
son. The  aerial  vegetative  parts  were  quite  uniform  from  both  kinds  of 
tubers  but  at  harvest  time  the  hills  from  seed  tubers  which  had  been  stored 
at  10°  C.  contained  moi-e  and  larger  tubers  than  did  those  from  the  parent 
seed  tubers  which  had  been  stored  at  0°  C. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


37 


sharply  between  thumb  and  finger,  when  the  presence  of  ice 
crystals  is  revealed  by  a faint  crunching  sound.  This  is,  how- 
ever, but  a crude  test  and  its  unreliability  was  shown  by  the 
fact  that  frost  necrosis  appeared  in  some  cases  where  ice  crys- 
tals were  not  so  detected.  Still  more  significant  is  the  fact  that 
in  other  cases  ice  crystals  were  heard  when  no  evident  injury 
resulted.  So  far  as  any  conclusion  was  justified,  therefore,  it 
is  that  frost  necrosis  does  not  necessarily  result  from  a slight 
amount  of  ice  crystallization  but  that  this  must  proceed  to  a 
certain  advanced  stage  to  produce  death  of  the  associated  tis- 
sues. 

It  is  a matter  of  common  experience  concerning  the  effect  of 
freezing  upon  plant  tissues  that  there  are  wide  variations  in 
susceptibility  and  various  theories  have  been  developed  to  ac- 
count for  this.  Since  our  experiments  give  no  new  evidence 
bearing  on  these  we  will  simply  record  the  facts  without  attempt- 
ing to  relate  them  to  such  theories, 
attempting  to  relate  them  to  such  theories. 

Another  interesting  phenomenon  having  relation  to  ice  crys- 
tallization is  that  known  as  supercooling.  On  this  some  evi- 
dence was  secured.  It  is  a familiar  fact  that  any  licpiid  must 
be  cooled  to  some  temperature  below  its  freezing  point  before 
crystallization  begins.  This  range  of  temperature  below  the 
freezing  point  is  supercooling.  Following  supercooling  there 
is  a sharp  temporary  rise  of  temperature  to  the  higher  degree, 
this  latter  constituting  the  true  freezing  point  of  the  solution 
(fig.  12).  Since  potato  sap  carries  considerable  matter  in  solu- 
tion its  freezing  point  is  lower  than  that  of  pure  water.  Mliller- 
Thurgau  determined  it  to  be  about  -1.0°C.  but  in  our  experi- 
ments it  often  more  nearly  approximated  -2.0°C.  than  -1.0°C. 
and  varied  Avidely  Avith  individual  tubers  (Table  IX). 

Muller-Thurgau  found  further  that  Avhere  he  made  compara- 
tive determinations  of  the  supercooling  points  of  living  plant 
tissues  and  of  the  expressed  sap,  the  living  tissues  had  a loAver 
supercooling  point  than  did  the  expressed  sap.  He  also  found 
that  when  the  potato  Avas  frozen,  then  thaAved,  and  frozen 
again,  the  extreme  supercooling  Avas  not  required  for  the  sec- 
ond freezing.  This  loAvering  of  the  supercooling  point  in  living 
tissues  he  attributed  to  the  resistance  of  active  protoplasm. 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


Relation  of  time  element  to  supercooling.  Miiller-Thurgau 
held  that  the  supercooling  point  varied  directly  with  the  air 
temperature  to  which  the  tuber  was  exposed;  i.  e.,  was  de- 
pressed with  the  fall  of  air  temperature.  He  justifies  this  con- 
clusion by  such  data  as  are  given  in  Table  VIII. 

Table  VIII  — ^^Mullek-Thurgau’s  Results  Showing  Relation  of 
Supercooling  Point  to  Air  Temperatures 


Exp. 

No. 

Exposure 

Potato  Temperatures 

Temperature 

°C. 

Time 

Supercooling-  point 
"C. 

Freezing-  point 
°C. 

- 4 5 

2 hours 

-3.2 

-0.8 

-50 

uot  ffi  veu 

-3.5 

-1.2 

- 7.2 

-4.1 

-1.4 

4 

-11.0 

4 hours 

-1.0 

- 9 to  -12 

5 “ 

-6.1 

-0.98 

From  our  experience  it  requires  some  further  explanation 
than  is  afforded  by  Miiller-Thurgau ’s  figures  to  understand 
why  freezing  should  have  occurred  at  the  end  of  2 hours  at 
-4.5  °C.  and  at  the  end  of  4 or  5 hours  at  the  extremely  low 
temperatures  of  experiments  4 and  5,  Table  VIII.  Muller- 
Thurgau,  in  his,  experiments,  already  explained,  had  no  way  of 
regulating  the  rate  of  fall  of  the  air  temperature  in  his  freez- 
ing chamber.  Fortunately,  with  the  Potter  freezing  apparatus 
we  were  able  to  do  this.  We  therefore  undertook  to  repeat 
Muller-Thurgau’s  experiment  controlling  this  time  factor.  The 
results,  as  shown  in  Table  IX,  indicate  that  the  rate  of  fall  of 
the  air  temperature  influences  the  supercooling  point. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


39 


Table  IX — Relation  op  Supercooling  to  Rate  op  Fall  op  Freezing 

Temperatures 


Exp. 

No. 

Variety 

Air  Temperature 

Potato  Temperature 

Max. 

temp. 

°C. 

Time  to  drop 
from  o"  to 
max.  temp. 

Super- 
cooling' 
point 
°C.  ^ 

Time  to 
super- 
cool 

Freezing 

point 

°C. 

1 

Iviii'al 

—5.5 

9.5  m i n 

—4.0 

1 0,5  m i n 

—1.25 

2 

—5.0 

90  “ 

—4.95 

174  “ 

—1.3 

3 

—10.5 

80  “ 

—4.2 

73  “ 

—1.8 

4 

—11.0 

40  “ 

-3.1 

49  “ 

-1.7 

5 

Irish  Cobbler 

—5.6 

20  “ 

—3.5 

100  “ 

—1.7 

6 

—6.0 

60  “ 

— 5 • 5 

125  

—1.7 

7 

—11.0 

55  “ 

-3.2 

58  “ 

—2.3 

8 

Early  Ohio. . . 

—4.4 

120  “ 

—4.15 

112  “ 

— 1.9 

9 

—8.0 

40  “ 

—2.2 

75  “ 

—1.6 

10 

“ “ ... 

-11. 0 

45  “ 

-2.8 

55  “ 

— 1.5 

Prom  these  data  it  seems  evident  that  the  supercooling  point 
does  not  vary  simply  with  the  air  temperature  but  that  it  is 
influenced  by  other  factors,  including  the  rate  of  fall  of  the 
temperature.  Comparing  tubers  of  the  same  variety,  experi- 
ments 3 and  4 show  that  in  3 a slow  drop  to  -10. 5C.  gave  a 
lower  supercooling  point  (-4.2 °C.)  than  did  a rapid  drop  in  4 
to  practically  the  same  point.  With  another  variety,  in  experi- 
ment 6,  a slower  drop  to  -6°C.  gave  a lower  supercooling  point 
(-5.5°C.)  than  did  the  rapid  drop  to  -11°C.  in  experiment  7, 
(supercooling  point  -3.2°C.).  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  gen- 
eral the  supercooling  points  recorded  in  our  trials  (Table  IX) 
represent  about  the  same  range  as  Muller-Tliurgau’s  (Table 
VIII).  These  are  also  in  accord  with  our  general  experience; 
viz.,  that  potatoes  do  not  begin  freezing  until  exposed  to  -3°C. 
or  lower.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  in  two  cases,  experi- 
ments 9 and  10,  the  supercooling  point  was  reached  above  -3°C. 
These  are  to  be  regarded  as  exceptional  cases  requiring  ex- 
planation. In  the  first  place,  in  this  method  (see  fig.  4)  muti- 
lated tubers  are  used  and  where  freshly  cut  surfaces  are  ex- 
posed, even  with  precautions  to  dry  them,  the  supercooling 
point  may  be  raised.  In  the  second  place,  the  supercooling 
point  may  be  influenced  by  such  external  factors  as  mechanical 
disturbance,  as  was  indicated  in  some  of  our  experiments. 


40 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


The  ultimate  freezing  point.  The  ultimate  freezing  temper- 
atures as  shown  in  Table  IX  are  in  general  somewhat  lower 
than  Miiller-Thurgau’s,  Table  VIII.  In  both  cases  it  will  be 
noted  that  there  is  a considerable  variation.  It  will  be  evident 
that  the  method  employed  can  give  only  approximate  results 
at  the  best,  and  also  that  this  varies  with  individual  tubers. 

Relative  temperatures  of  air  and  potato.  Tables  X and  XI 
show  in  detail  the  comparative  temperatures  of  air  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  potato  tuber  and  the  supercooling  range  as  fol- 


7Jme  /n  Minutes 


FIG.  12.— GRAPH  REPRESEN'l’ING  THE  RELATIVE  TEMPERATURES  OF  AIR 
AND  TUBER  IN  SUPERCOOLING  EXPERIMENTS 

The  upper  curves  represent  the  temperatures  of  the  interior  of  the  tubers  and  the 
lower  represent  corresponding:  air  temperatures.  Tlie  dotted  lines  indicate  the  tempera- 
tures in  experiment  No.  4 (Table  0)  while  tlie  continuous  lines  belong  to  expenment  3 
(Table  9).  A comparison  of  these  curves  sliows  that  where  the  air  temperature  dropped 
rapidly,  as  in  experiment  4,  tlie  supercooling  point  of  the  tuber  occurred  more  quickly 
and  at  a higher  temperature  than  where  tlie  air  temperature  was  dropped  slowly,  ex- 
periment 3.  See  further  evidence  of  this  in  Tables  10  and  11  and  accompanying  text. 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


41 


loAved  through  two  experiments,  in  one  of  which  the  tempera- 
ture fall  was  more  gradual  than  the  other.  In  both  cases  the 
internal  temperatures  could  not  be  accurately  recorded  in  the 
earlier  stages  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  thermometers  Avere 
graduated  only  for  loAver  temperatures.  These  data  are,  hoAV- 
eA^er,  unimportant. 

The  apparent  influence  of  the  rate  of  fall  of  air  temperature 
upon  the  supercooling  range  is  shoAAui  graphically  in  figure  12. 

Due  to  the  sudden  i-ise  of  temperature  in  the  interior  of  the 
potato  just  folloAAung  the  supercooling  period,  all  curves  aaFIcIi 
represent  the  internal  temperature  of  potato  tubers  liaA^e  a 
profile  similar  to  that  represented  in  this  graph  (fig.  12). 


Table  X — The  Internal  Temperature  Variations  of  a Potato 
When  the  Air  Temperature  Is  Dropped  Sloavly  to  — 5°C 
(Table  IX,  Exp.  2) 


Temperature 

Time 

Air 

Potato 

°C. 

°C. 

0 

-^-10 

10  min 

0 

20  

-1.0 

40  

-1.8 

50  “ 

—2.4 

PO  “ 

-2.7 

70  “ 

-2.7 

+2.0 

80  " 

-4.6 

+0.3 

80  ‘ 

—5.0 

-0.9 

100  “ 

-5.4 

-2.0 

110  “ 

-4.6 

—2.7 

115  ‘ 

-4.8 

-3.2 

120  ‘ 

-4.8 

-3.3 

125  “ 

-4.7 

— 3.5 

130  “ 

-4.9 

—3.8 

135  '■  

-4.6 

—3.9 

140  “ 

-4.8 

-4.1 

145  

-4.7 

-4.2 

150  “•  

—4.7 

-4.4 

155  • 

-5.0 

-4.5 

160  “ 

-4.7 

-4.7 

165  '•  

-5.0 

—4.7 

170  “ 

-4.85 

171  

“ 

-4.9 

172  “ 

-4.91 

173  “ 

-4.92 

174  “ 

—4.95 

175  “ 

-2.9 

180  “ 

-1.8 

185  “ ; 

-1.5 

190  “ 

-1.4 

195  “ 

-1.3 

200  “ 

--1.3 

203  “ 

-1.3 

42 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


Table  XL — The  Internal  Temperature  Variations  of  a Potato 
When  the  Air  Temperature  Is  Dropped  Slowly  to  — 10.5  C. 
( Fable  IX,  Exp.  3.  The  Same  Data  are  Graphed  in  Fig.  12.) 


Time 

Temperature 

Air 

°C. 

Potato 

°C. 

0 min 

-fl.O 

+0.0 

— l.O 

10  “ 

15  “ 

—2.0 

20  “ 

—2.8 

25  ‘ 

—3.3 

30  “ 

—4.0 

35  ‘ 

—4.5 

40  “ 

—5.2 

45  ‘ 

— 5 . 5 

+2.0 

+0.2 

50  “ 

—5.8 

55  “ 

—6.0 

1 —0.3 

60  

—7.8 

1 —1.4 

65  

—8.2 

—2.9 

70  “ 

—8.7 

—3.2 

71  “ 

—8.8 

—3.4 

72  

—9.0 

—3.8 

73  “ 

— J.l 

: —4.2 

74  

-9.2 

j —4.1 

75  “ 

—9.3 

i —2.9 

76  “ 

—9.5 

—2.5 

77  “ 

—9.7 

—2.4 

78  “ 

—10.0 

—2.35  - 

79  “ 

—10.0 

—2.3 

80  “ 

; —10.2 

—2.1 

85  ‘ 

! -10.5 

-L8 

90  “ 

95  ‘ 

100  

Summary 

1.  The  potato  crop  sutfers  a considerable  damage  each  year 
l)ecause  of  freezing  injuries. 

2.  The  most  serious  danger  in  Wisconsin  and  the  other  nor- 
thern states  is  in  autumn,  when  the  early  frosts  come  before 
or  during  the  period  of  digging  and  handling  the  crop. 

3.  Similar  danger  exists  in  all  the  stages  of  transportation 
and  delivery  of  the  crop  during  the  winter. 

4.  Where  the  tubers  are  frozen  solid  they  immediately  col- 
lapse upon  thawing  and  because  of  their  wet  appearance  are 
easily  detected  and  sorted  out. 

5.  In  case  of  mild  exposure  only  a part  of  the  tubers  ma}^  be 
So  frozen,  the  rest  appearing  normal  externally.  Such  tubers 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


43 


are  commonly  held  as  satisfactory  for  storage,  market  or  seed 
purposes. 

6.  If,  however,  these  tubers  are  cut  open,  although  all  are 
externally  sound,  a certain  proportion  of  them  will  usually 
show  evidences  of  internal  frost  necrosis. 

7.  Such  internal  freezing  injuries  are  not  ordinarily  visible  ex- 
ternally, even  after  long  storage,  but  in  white-skinned  varieties 
they  may  show  as  darkened  areas  on  the  skin,  and  in  pro- 
longed dry  storage  frost-necrotic  tubers  wilt  faster  than  normal 
ones. 

8.  Frost  necrosis  is,  however,  at  once  apparent  upon  cutting 
open  the  tubers  because  of  the  darkening  of  the  necrotic  tis- 
sues. 

9.  The  tissues  of  the  stem  end  of  the  tuber  are  in  general 
more  sensitive  to  freezing  injury  than  those  of  the  eye  end  and 
the  vascular  tissues  more  sensitive  than  the  parenchymatous. 

10.  As  a result,  tubers  subjected  to  freezing  temperatures  when 
cut  open  may  show  internal  discolorations  of  any  of  three 
types:  (1)  Ping  necrosis,  discoloration  of  the  vascular  ring, 
especially  evident  at  the  stem  end  when  the  tuber  is  cut  cross- 
wise; (2)  net  necrosis,  in  which  the  vascular  tissue  including 
the  small  thread-like  phloem  elements  scattered  through  the 
pith  and  cortex  are  darkened;  and  (3)  blotching,  in  which  dis- 
colored tissue  in  patches,  usually  having  vascular  elements  as 
centers,  is  distributed  irregularly  throughout  the  tuber. 

11.  Frost  necrosis,  especially  of  the  net  and  ring  types,  is 
frequently  confused  with  other  potato  tuber  maladies,  es- 
pecially with  the  inheritable  (non-parasitic)  net  necrosis  and 
the  Fusarium  bundle  browning,  or  ‘'ring  disease.”  It  is  es- 
pecially important  to  differentiate  these  various  types  of 
trouble  in  potato  seed  stock. 

12.  Since  the  steam  end  tissues  are  the  more  sensitive,  inter- 
nal frost  necrosis  is  most  quickly  detected  by  cutting  off  a 
little  from  the  stem  end  of  samples  of  suspected  tubers,  es- 
pecially any  such  as  show  incipient  wilting. 

13.  The  necrotic  discolorations  develop  promptly  after  the 
freezing  (within  a few  hours,  faster  at  higher  temperatures), 
passing  through  pink  to  dark  brown  or  black  and  ordinarily 
undergoing  very  little  further  change  thereafter,  even  during 
long  storage. 


44 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  46 


14.  When  drying  out  occurs  in  storage  it  is  often  evidenced 
internally  by  whitish  air-filled  patches  or,  in  the  more  extreme 
cases,  by  small  cavities  within  the  blackened  areas. 

15.  The  turning  sweet  of  potato  tubers  is  often,  but  incor- 
rectly, attributed  to  freezing.  It  is  due  to  long  storage  at  low 
temperatures  which  are,  however,  above  the  point  of  frost  in- 
jury, and  it  will  disappear  if  the  tubers  are  again  held  at 
higher  temperatures.  Hence,  while  sweetness  indicates  that 
tubers  have  been  held  for  some  time  dangerously  near  their 
freezing  point,  it  does  not  indicate  that  they  have  been  frozen. 

16.  There  is,  a considerable  difference  between  individual  tu- 
bers in  susceptibility  to  frost  injury,  even  in  the  same  lot  of 
potatoes. 

17.  In  general,  neither  variety,  size,  maturity,  nor  relative 
turgidity  of  potato  tubers  infiuences  to  any  marked  degree  the 
liability  to  injury  nor  the  type  of  resultant  frost  necrosis. 

18.  “Sweet”  tubers  may  be  more  resistant  to  freezing  than 
normal  tubers.  Mliller-Thurgau  showed  experimentally  that 
tubers  with  excessive  sugar  content  regularly  froze  at  lower  tem- 
peratures than  other  tubers,  but  that  the  difference  between  the 
freezing  points  of  “sweet”  and  normal  tubers  was  not  sufficient 
to  be  of  economic  importance.  Our  experiments  in  this  case 
are  too  limited  to  be  conclusive. 

19.  When  wounds  and  bruises  are  healed  over  they  appar- 
ently do  not  influence  susceptibility  to  freezing.  However,  in 
tubers  with  freshly  cut  moist  surfaces,  freezing  may  begin  at 
relatively  higher  temperatures  and  in  such  cases  the  injuries 
may  consist  of  a freezing  solid  of  the  tissues  from  the  cut  sur- 
face inward. 

20.  In  general,  frost  necrosis  will  appear  in  at  least  a portion 
of  tubers  which  are  subjected  to  a temperature  of  -10°C.  for 
one  hour,  to  -5°C.  for  two  hours,  or  to  -3”C.  or  slightly  lower 
temperatures  for  several  hours. 

21.  Although  the  actual  freezing  point  of  potato  sap  is  about 
-1°C.  the  living  tuber  will  endure  long  exposure  to  temperature 
at  or  near  -3°C.  Avitlioiit  injury.  This  is  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  tissue  must  be  supercooled  before  incipient  ice  crystal- 
lization can  occur,  but  once  this  begins  there  is  a sharp  rise  of 
the  internal  tempei*ature  to  about  -T^C.,  the  true  freezing 


Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers 


45 


3)oint,  and  the  freezing  injury  continues  to  develop  at  this  higher 
temperature. 

22.  The  supercooling  range  seems  to  be  dependent  upon  the 
air  temperature  and  the  rate  at  which  this  temperature  is 
dropped.  Thus,  at  -3.5° C.  the  supercooling  point  approaches 
the  air  temperature.  If  the  air  temperature  is  dropped  slowly 
to  -5°C.  or  below,  it  will  approach  -5°C.  while  if  dropped 
rapidly  to  the  same  point  it  will  be  much  higher,  i.  e.,  nearer 
-3°C. 

23.  Sprouts  are  more  resistant  to  freezing  than  the  tubers 
from  which  the}^  arise,  but  uninjured  sprouts  on  necrotic  tu- 
bers often  do  not  outlive  the  germination  period,  probably  due 
to  extensive  vascular  injuries  of  the  tuber ; hence  if  chilled 
tubers  are  planted  they  often  fail  to  produce  plants. 

24.  Plants  produced  by  the  frost-necrotic  halves  of  experi- 
mental tubers  grew  more  slowTy  than  those  from  the  control 
halves,  but  ultimately  produced  as  large  and  healthy  plants 
and  as  abundant  a crop. 

25.  Necrotic  symptoms  never  appear  in  the  progeny  of  frost- 
necrotic  seed  potatoes. 


Literature  Cited 

(1)  Apelt,  Arthur 

1907  Neue  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Kaltetod  der  Kartoffel. 

Inaugural  Dissertation,  Universitat  Halle,  Witten- 
berg. 

(2)  Appleman,  Chas.  O. 

1912  Changes  in  potatoes  during  storage.  Md.  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  167. 

(3)  Bartholomew,  E.  T. 

1915  A pathological  and  physiological  study  of  the  black 
heart  of  potato  tubers.  In  Centbl.  f.  Bakt.  Abt.  2, 
Bd.  43:  609-639,  PI.  1-3. 

(4)  Miiller-Thurgau,  Hermann 

1880  Uber  das  Gefrieren  und  Erfrieren  der  Pflanzen.  In 
Landw.  Jahrb.,  Bd.  9:  132-189,  PL  1-4. 

(5)  

1882  Uber  Zuckerhaufung  in  Pflanzentheilen  infolge  niederer 
Temperatur.  In  Landw.  Jahrb.,  Bd.  11:  7 51-8  28, 
PI.  26. 


1886  Uber  das  Gefrieren  und  Erfrieren  der  Pflanzen.  II 
Theil.  In  Landw.  Jahrb.,  Bd.  15:  453 — 610,  PI. 

7-10. 


(6) 


4G 


AYiscoxsin  Kesearch  Bulletin  46 


( 7 ) Norton,  J.  B.  S. 

1906  Irish  potato  diseases.  Md.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  108. 

(8)  Wollny,  E. 

188  9 Die  Beeinflussung  des  Produktionsvermdgens  der  Kar 
toffelpflanze  durch  Einwirkung  niederer  Tempera 
turen  auf  die  Saatknollen.  In  Forsch.  Geb.  Agr 
Phys.,  Bd.  12:  398-402. 


Research  Bulletin  47 


October  1920 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


B.  H.  HIBBARD 
J.  D.  BLACK 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Tenancy  in  Wisconsin  lower  than  in  most  north  central  states 1 

Types  of  leases 2 

The  cash  lease 3 

The  half-and-half  dairy  lease 5 

Provisions  common  to  both  leases 9 

Distribution  of  cash  and  share  leases 10 

Short  versus  long  leases 11 

Duties  of  tenant  and  restrictions 14 

Provisions  of  half-and-half  dairy  lease 24 

Land-and-stock  cash  lease 31 

Landlord’s  cattle-dairy-lease  32 

The  one-half-all-stock  lease  35 

The  one-third-stock  lease  35 

The  one-third-grain  lease  36 

The  one-half-grain  lease  36 

The  share-cash  lease  37 

The  grain-and-dairy  lease  37 

The  agreement  to  work  land 38 

Cash  versus  share  renting  39 

Division  of  farm  income 42 

Under  cash  rent  43 

Under  share  rent  47 

Dividing  the  expenses 54 

Relations  between  landlord  and  tenant  56 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  J.  D.  Black 

Tenancy  in  Wisconsin  is  low  in  percentage  as  compared  with  that  of 
many  other  north  central  states,  yet  there  is  a large  number  of  farms 
operated  by  tenants,  and  in  the  older  settled  sections  even  an  increasing 
proportion. 

Tenancy  is  low  in  Wisconsin  because  land  is  relatively  cheap  in 
many  counties,  because  farms  are  relatively  small,  because  much  of 
the  population  has  sprung  from  European  countries  where  ownership 
of  a small  farm  is  preferred  to  renting,  because  the  livestock  farming 
practiced  in  Wisconsin  is  not  as  well  suited  to  renting  as  grain  farm- 
ing, and  because  there  has  been  less  speculation  in  land  in  Wisconsin 
than  in  most  other  states.  These  same  reasons  explain  the  distribu- 
tion of  tenancy  in  Fig.  1.  It  is  highest  in  southern  Wisconsin  where 
land  values  are  highest,  but  low  in  eastern  Wisconsin  where  farms  are 
small  and  the  population  is  foreign.  The  high  land  values  in  the  Rock 
River  valley  make  tenancy  fairly  high  as  far  north  as  Fond  du  Lac 
County.  Large  farms  and  grain  farming  in  central  and  western  Wis- 
consin produce  much  tenancy,  even  though  land  values  are  rather  low. 
Beef-cattle  farming  reduces  the  number  of  tenants  in  Grant  and  Iowa 
Counties.  Grain  farming  increases  it  in  St.  Croix,  Pierce,  Dunn,  Jack- 
son,  Green  Lake  and  Columbia  Counties.  Tobacco  farming  increases » 
it  in  Dane  County.  Speculation  around  cities  increases  tenancy  no- 
ticeably in  Milwaukee,  La  Crosse,  Winnebago  and  Dane  Counties. 
Speculation  in  new  land  shows  its  effect  in  Forest,  Vilas,  Oneida  and 
Washburn  Counties.  Juneau,  Adams  and  Monroe  have  more  rented 
land  than  one  would  expect  with  land  values  averaging  in  1910  from 
$25  to  $50  an  acre,  but  these  are  the  counties  with  large  acreages  of 
land  farmed  out  to  neighboring  owners. 

In  1910,  out  of  177,127  farms  in  Wisconsin,  24,654,  or  13.9  jier  cent, 
were  worked  by  tenants,  as  compared  with  41.4  per  cent  in  Illinois, 
21.0  per  cent  in  Minnesota  and  15.8  per  cent  in  Michigan.  Besides  the 
13.9  per  cent  of  farms  rented,  there  were  681,396  acres  worked  under 
lease  by  neighboring  owning  farmers.  Rented  farms  are  larger  than 
owned  farms.  Of  the  total  land  in  farms  in  Wisconsin,  19.0  per  cent 
was  rented  in  1910. 

Ill  1910,  slightly  more  than  half  of  the  tenant  farms  of  Wisconsin 
were  rented  for  cash  and  the  rest  were  rented  on  shares.  At  cash  rent, 
only  in  a few  cases  is  livestock  let  with  the  land.  At  share  rent,  in  a 


2 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


majority  of  cases  either  part  or  all  of  the  livestock  is  rented  with  the 
land.  Leases  covering  both  land  and  stock  are  called  “land-and-stock 
leases.”  Share  leases  without  livestock  are  ^^rain  leases.”  Leases 
partly  share  and  partly  cash  are  called  ^'share-cash  leases.” 


FIG.  I.  LAND  IN  FARMS  AND  LAND  RENTED  IN  WISCONSIN.  1910 


The  black  represents  land  not  in  farms,  either  because  it  has  not  been 
made  into  farms,  or  because  it  has  been  taken  out  of  farms  for  some 
other  purpose.  Each  dot  represents  2,000  acres  of  rented  land. 


The  following  four  general  types  of  land-and-stock  share  leases  are 
used  in  Wisconsin:  (1)  The  half-and-half  dairy  lease,  under  which  the 
landlord  furnishes  one-half  the  productive  livestock  and  receives  one- 
half  the  proceeds  and  increase  of  livestock;  (2)  the  landlord's  cattle 
dairy  lease,  under  which  the  landlord  furnishes  all  the  productive  live- 
stock and  receives  one-half;  (3)  the  one-half  all-stock  lease,  under 
which  the  landlord  furnishes  one-half  of  all  livestock  and  machinery 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


3 


and  receives  one-half;  (4)  the  one-third  stock  lease,  under  which  the 
landlord  furnishes  all  the  livestock  and  machinery  and  receives  two- 
thirds. 

The  grain  leases  used  are  of  two  kinds,  the  one-third  grain  lease, 
under  which  the  tenant  furnishes  everything  but  the  land,  and  gets  two- 
thirds  of  the  grain  at  the  machine,  and  the  one-half  grain  lease,  under 
which  the  landlord  furnishes  part  of  certain  expenses  such  as  seed, 
twine  and  threshing.  In  some  localities  mixed  grain-and-dairy  leases 
are  found. 

By  far  the  most  important  types  of  leases  now  in  use  are  the  regular 
cash  lease  and  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease.  Following  are  sample 
leases  of  these  types  such  as  are  now  in  force  in  Wisconsin. 


Lease  I. — Cash  Lease 


Description 

Term 

renewal 

Rental 

Payments 

Security 


Duties  of 
tenant 


THIS  AGREEMENT,  Made  this  5th  day  of  January, 

1915,  by  and  between  of  , Lafayette 

County,  Wisconsin,  hereinafter  called  the  landlord,  and 
, of  , Lafayette  County,  Wisconsin,  here- 
inafter called  the  tenant. 

WITNESSETH,  That  said  landlord,  for  and  in  consid- 
eration of  the  cash  rental  and  agreements  hereafter  named, 
does  hereby  lease  to  said  tenant  his  farm  of  one  hundred 
and  sixty  (160)  acres,  more  or  less,  with  all  buildings  and 
improvements  located  thereon,  situated  in  Lafayette  County, 
and  described  as  follows:  The  W.  V2  of  the  S.  W.  ^ of 

Sec.  3 and  the  E.  1/2  of  the  S.  E.  of  Sec.  4,  all  in  Town 
, Runge , East, 

TO  HOLD,  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  March  1,  1915, 
and  thereafter  for  four  more  years,  unless  either  landlord 
or  tenant  shall  notify  the  other  to  the  contrary  on  or  before 
December  1st,  1915,  said  tenant  paying  said  landlord  there- 
for an  annual  rental  of  seven  hundred  (700)  dollars.  Re- 
ceipt of  one  hundred  (100)  dollars  of  said  rental  for  the 
first  year  said  landlord  hereby  acknowledges.  The  re- 
mamder  of  the  rent  for  the  first  year  is  to  be  paid  in  equal 
payments  on  September  1st,  1915,  and  February  1st,  1916, 
and  is  secured  by  two  promissory  notes  for  three  hundred 
(300)  dollars  each,  expiring  on  the  before  mentioned  dates, 
bearing  interest  at  six  (6)  per  cent  thereafter  till  paid, 
and  signed  by  a third  party  approved  by  said  landlord. 
And  if  this  agreement  is  extended  as  before  mentioned, 
then  said  tenant  shall  at  once  execute  to  said  landlord  eight 
promissory  notes  for  three  hundred  and  fifty  (350)  dollars 
each,  expiring  on  September  1st  and  February  1st  of  the 
four  successive  years,  bearing  interest  at  six  (6)  per  cent 
thereafter  till  paid,  and  signed  by  a third  party  approved 
by  said  landlord. 

Said  tenant  further  agrees  as  follows:  to  farm  said 
premises  in  a good  and  husband-like  manner;  to  put  into 
crops  all  stubble  land ; to  plow  no  land  now  seeded  to  grass. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Seeding 

Grass  seed 

Selling 

crops 

Manure 

Orchard 

Gullies 

Weeds 

Fences 

New  fences 

Building 

repairs 

Windmill 
and  pump 


Insurance 

rules 


Duties  of 
landlord 

Grass  seed 


Repairs 


Improve- 

ments 


Firewood 


except  with  the  consent  of  said  landlord  j to  perform  all 
tile  work  connected  with  sowing  whatever  clover  and  tim- 
othy seed  said  landlord  shall  furnish;  to  plant  not  more 
than  twenty-five  acres  to  corn  each  year,  and  to  keep  such 
corn  reasonably  free  of  weeds;  to  sell  no  hay  or  grain  or 
roughage  of  any  kind  except  with  the  consent  of  said 
landlord  and  to  keep  enough  livestock  to  feed  out  all 
crops  grown  on  said  farm ; to  haul  out  all  manure  once  each 
year  and  put  it  on  the  land  which  is  next  to  be  plowed 
for  corn;  to  plant  and  care  for  all  fruit  trees  provided  by 
said  landlord ; to  keep  the  land  from  washing  by  not  plow- 
ing through  seeded  ravines  and  ditches  and  by  keeping  ail 
washouts  filled;  to  cut  or  dig  all  noxious  weeds  in  time  so 
as  to  prevent  tiieir  going  to  seed;  to  cut  the*weeds  in  the 
fence-rows  and  around  the  buildings,  and  to  the  middle  of 
the  road,;  to  keep  all  the  fences  on  said  farm  in  good  re- 
pair and  order,  the  landlord  furnishing  wire  and  staples, 
and  lumber  for  gates;  to  cut  all  fence  posts  needed  for  re- 
pairs and  for  new  fences,  and  to  furnish  half  the  labor 
for  building  all  new  fences;  to  keep  the  barns  and  other 
outbuildings  in  good  repair,  furnishing  all  ordinary  labor, 
and  to  replace  all  doors  and  windows  broken  duo  to  his 
acts  or  neglect,  or  those  of  his  employees;  to  keep  the 
windmill  well  oiled  and  pay  for  all  ordinary  pump  and 
windmill  repairs;  to  haul  all  materials  which  are  to  be  used 
in  making  repairs  or  improvements  on  said  farm,  including 
the  gxavel  for  a 6 ft.  foundation  for  a 16  by  40  ft.  silo, 
and  to  board  any  workmen  of  said  landlord  engaged  in 
making  these  repairs  or  improvements  at  the  rate  of  four 
(4)  dollars  per  week;  and  to  observe  all  the  rules  of  the 

Mutual  Insurance  Company  with  respect  to  tank 

heaters,  threshing  engines,  etc. 

Said  landlord  further  agrees  as  follows:  to  furnish  clover 
or  timothy  seed  enough  to  sow  well  and  thickly',  at  least 
fifteen  acres  each  year,  and  to  replace  any  last  year’s  seed- 
ing that  winter-kills;  at  the  beginning  of  the  lease  to  put 
in  good  repair  the  pump,  windmill,  cistern  and  all  doors 
and  windows,  and  thereafter  to  furnish  material  except 
posts  for  all  repairs  to  buildings  or  fences  not  occasioned 
by  misuse  of  tenant  or  his  employees,  and  to  provide  one- 
]mlf  the  labor  for  all  new  fences;  to  repair  the  roof  of  the 
dwelling  house  on  said  fairni  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
lease  to  make  said  dwelling  house  habitable  in  all  ways;  to 
build  a 16  by  40  ft.  silo  and  have  it  ready  for  the  ten- 
ant’s first  corn  crop;  and  to  pay  said  tenant  ten  (10)  dol- 
lars a year  to  cut  and  dig  and  use  all  possible  means  to 
eradicate  the  patch  of  Canada  thistles  growing  on  said 
premises. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  said  tenant  shall  use  as  firewood 
first  the  tops  of  trees  used  as  fence  posts  and  after  that 
the  down  and  then  as  much  dead  timber  as  he  may  need; 


Faem  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


5 


repairs  tenant  shall  pay  for  all  papering  and  painting 

and  other  inside  repairs  to  the  dwelling  house  on  said  farm 
and  replace  all  broken  glass  in  windows  and  doors;  that 
Taxes  said  landlord  shall  pay  all  real  estate  taxes  except  the  road 
taxes,  which  said  tenant  shall  work  out  or  else  pay  as  an 
Quittance  to  his  rent.  There  will  be  left  on  said  farm  on 

require-  March  1st,  1915,  six  (6)  acres  of  rye,  200  raspberry  bushes, 

nients  25  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes,  and  a year-old  strawberry 

bed  started  from  200  plants,  and  said  tenant  shall  leave 
the  same  as  to  amount  and  quality  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 
Said  tenant  may  remove  from  said  farm  at  the  end  of  the 
lease  enough  feed  to  keep  the  livestock  which  he  has  kept 
on  said  farm  until  the  new  crop  is  ready  for  feeding;  but 
Sub  letting-  straw  shall  be  taken  from  said  farm.  Said  tenant  shall 
‘ ^ot  assign  this  lease  nor  under-let  said  jd remises;  and  said 
Right  of  Tandlord  shall  have  the  right  to  enter  upon  and  view  said 

entrance  premises  at  all  reasonable  hours  and  to  make  repairs  or 

improvements  on  said  premises;  and  if  either  party  shall 
mljnent"  respect  fail  to  carry  out  any  of  the  provisions  of 

this  lease,  then  the  other  party  may  hire  the  same  done 
as  herein  written  and  the  costs  thereof  shall  be  paid  by  the 
party  failing  to  carry  out  said  provision;  and  either  party 
Termmationj^^g^y  terminate  this  agreement  on  March  1st  of  any  year, 
except  the  first  or  the  last,  by  giving  notice  on  the  Decem- 
dSurbance^^®^’  preceding  of  his  purpose  to  do  so  and  paying  or 
forfeiting  to  the  other  party  the  sum  of  one  hundred  (100) 
dollars,  except  that  there  shall  in  such  case  be  added  or 
subtracted  from  said  one  hundred  (100)  dollars  all  amounts 
due  one  party  from  the  other  resulting  from  failure  to 
cany  out  any  part  of  the  lease. 

Quitting  of  at  the  expiration  of  this  lease,  said  tenant  agrees  to 

yield  possession  without  further  demand  or  notice  of  the 
above  described  land  and  premises,  leaving  them  in  as  good 
order  and  condition  as  the  same  were  in  when  said  tenant 
entered  upon  them,  loss  by  fire  or  inevitable  accident  and 
ordinary  wear  excepted. 

And  all  the  agreements  herem  contained  shall  bind  said 
parties  mutually,  and  their  respective  heirs,  executors  and 
assigns. 

Witness  the  hand  and  seal  of  said  parties  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  Sealed  and  Delivered  in  the  Presence  of 

(Seal) 

(Seal) 

(Seal) 

Lease  II.  Half-and-Half  Dairy  Lease 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  this  1st  day  of  December, 

Date  1910^  between of  the  city  of , County  of 

^ State  of  Wisconsin,  hereinafter  called  the  landlord, 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Term 


Renewal 


Buildings 
and  repairs 


Fences 


Clearing 

land 


Improve- 

ments 


Labor 

Horses  and 
machinery 

Hauling 

Manure 

Repairs 

Care  of 
fields 


and  of Township  of  the  same  county  and 

state,  hereinafter  called  the  tenant, 

WITNESSETH,  that  said  landlord  does  hereby  lease  to 
said  tenant  his  farm  of  160  acres,  known  as  the  McGowan 

Farm,  located  in Township  of  the  County  and  State 

above  named,  together  with  all  buildings  and  improvements 
upon  it, 

TO  HOLD  the  same  for  a term  of  one  year  from 
March  1,  1917,  and  thereafter  for  four  more  years  unless 
notice  is  given  by  either  party  in  writing  to  the  contrary 
before  December  1st  preceding,  and  thereafter  from  year 
to  year  unless  notice  be  given  as  above  described, 

UPON  the  following  terms  and  conditions: 

Sec.  I.  Said  landlord  agrees — 

1.  To  furnish  to  said  tenant  the  above  described  farm 
and  premises,  put  all  buildings  in  repair  at  the  beginning 
of  the  lease,  and  thereafter  keep  same  in  repair,  except  as 
hereinafter  provided. 

2.  To  furnish  all  material  for  building  and  repairing 
fences,  and  pay  for  the  labor  of  building  all  permanent 
line  and  field  fences. 

3.  To  pay  for  man  labor  expended  in  ditching  and  in 
clearing  of  brush,  trees,  stumps  and  stone,  except  as 
mentioned  in  Section  II. 

4.  To  build  during  the  summer  of  1917  a new  hen  house 
large  enough  for  100  hens. 

Sec.  II.  Said  tenant  agrees: 

1.  To  farm  said  farm  in  a creditable  and  workmanlike 
manner,  properly  caring  for  all  crops  and  all  livestock 
kept  upon  it. 

2.  To  furaish  the  labor  for  the  above,  the  same  to  con- 
sist of  not  less  than  the  continuous  labor  of  two  men  from 
the  beginning  of  the  spring  field  work  to  the  close  of  corn 
harvest,  and  such  other  labor  as  is  needed. 

3.  To  furnish  the  necessary  horses,  machinery  and  tools, 
except  such  as  are  mentioned  in  Sec.  Ill,  4. 

4.  To  haul  all  produce  to  market,  including  milk,  except 
that  charges  made  by  creameries  or  condenseries  for  haul- 
ing shall  be  deducted  from  cream  or  milk  checks  before 
they  are  divided. 

5.  To  haul  all  feed,  fertilizer  and  fence  and  building 
material. 

6.  To  keep  the  manure  hauled  out,  cleaning  up  the  prem- 
ises in  spring  and  fall  of  each  year. 

7.  To  make  all  ordinary  repairs  on  buildings,  especially 
to  doors  and  windows,  said  landlord  supplying  all  mate- 
rials therefor  except  window  glass. 

8.  To  kee])  all  fences  in  repair  and  build  all  temporary 
fences. 

9.  To  remove  from  j^lowed  land  before  sowing  or  plant- 
ing all  stones  that  have  been  plowed  to  surface. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


7 


Livestock 


Farm 

expenses 


Seeds 


Extra 

machinery 


Horses 


Colts 


Additional 

land 


Taxes 


10.  To  cut  and  destroy  all  noxious  weeds  in  time  to  pre- 
vent their  going  to  seed,  handle  quack  grass  in  such  man- 
ner as  not  to  spread  it,  and  take  all  reasonable  care  to 
keep  the  fields  from  gullying. 

Sec.  III.  It  is  further  agreed  that ; 

1.  Said  landlord  and  said  tenant  shall  each  furnish  on 
March  1st,  1917,  an  equal  number  of  milk  cows,  heifers, 
brood  sows,  and  chickens,  and  these,  together  with  the  herd 
bull,  which  shall  be  a registered  Holstein,  shall  be  owned 
in  common  and  in  equal  undivided  shares.  It  is  agreed  that 
said  herd  shall  contain  not  less  than  24  milk  cows. 

2.  Each  party  shall  pay  one-half  of  all  expenses  (except 
labor)  for  threshing,  silage-cutting,  shredding,  feed  grind- 
ing, twine,  feeds  and  fertilizer,  and  veterinary  services 
(except  for  horses).  All  the  feed  (except  straw)  now  on 
said  farm  shall  be  measured  and  the  tenant  shall  buy  one- 
half  of  it,  or  provide  an  equal  amount  of  the  same  general 
kind  and  quality. 

3.  Each  shall  furnish  half  the  seed  grain  and  grass  and 
clover  seed,  except  that  on  the  last  year  said  tenant  works 
said  farm,  said  landlord  shall  pay  for  all  grass  and  clover 
seed. 

4.  There  are  now  on  said  place  one  manure  spreader, 
one  gasoline  engine  for  pumping  water,  one  milk  separator 
and  engine  for  driving  it,  one  milk  cooler,  and  a quantity 
of  milk  bottles  and  cans;  and  said  landlord  and  tenant 
shall  own  these  articles  jointly  and  in  common,  said  tenant 
paying  said  landlord  one  hundred  and  fifty  ($150)  dollars 
for  a half  interest  in  the  same,  one-half  the  purchase  price 
of  any  of  the  same  if  replaced  new,  and  selling  his  interest 
to  said  landlord  at  the  end  of  the  lease  at  such  price  as 
shall  be  agreed  upon. 

5.  Said  tenant  shall  furnish  gasoline  and  batteries  for 
said  engines,  and  keep  the  engines,  pump  and  windmill  in 
repair. 

6.  Said  tenant  shall  have  undivided  feed  for  his  horses, 
but  he  shall  keep  not  to  exceed  five  horses,  raise  no  colts 
without  the  consent  of  said  landlord,  pay  all  horseshoeing 
and  horse  veterinary  bills,  and  make  no  charge  to  said  land- 
lord for  horse  labor,  and  if  it  is  decided  to  raise  colts,  said 
tenant  shall  furnish  the  mare,  said  landlord  shall  pay  the 
stallion  fee,  and  the  colts  shall  be  owned  jointly. 

5.  Said  tenant  shall  lease  no  additional  land  without  con- 
sent of  said  landlord ; but  if  it  is  agreed  to  lease  such  land, 
said  landlord  shall  pay  all  the  rent  for  crop  land  and  half 
the  rent  for  pasture  land. 

6.  Said  landlord  shall  pay  all  taxes  on  property  jointly 
owned,  but  said  tenant  shall  work  or  pay  the  road  taxes  as- 
sessed to  said  farm. 

7.  Said  tenant  shall  build  fences  for  said  landlord,  ditch, 
clear  land,  and  dig  or  otherwise  destroy  Canada  thistles,  if 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


he  has  time  to  spare  from  the  regular  farm  work,  at  such 
times  as  said  landlord  shall  request,  and  shall  receive  pay 
for  the  same  at  the  regular  prevailing  daily  wages. 

Boarding  8.  Said  tenant  shall  board  all  workmen  hired  by  said 
workmen  landlord  at  four  (4)  dollars  per  week. 

Sec.  IV.  It  is  further  agreed  that — 

Managem,ent  1.  In  general  the  fields  shall  be  worked  on  a four-year 
of  crops  rotation  consisting  of  corn,  small  grain,  clover  and  timothy, 
and  pasture,  and  clover  and  timothy  shall  be  sown  with  all 
small  grain;  but  this  plan  may  be  changed  at  any  time  by 
agreement  between  the  two  parties  if  possible,  or  if  such 
agreement  is  not  possible,  at  the  direction  of  said  landlord. 
Buying  and  2.  Said  tenant  shall  sell  or  buy  property  owned  or  to  be 
selling  owned  jointly  only  at  the  consent  of  said  landlord. 

PivStock  tenant  shall  breed  no  heifers  till  they  are  21 

months  old,  shall  be  responsible  for  all  injury  to  animals 
due  to  their  getting  out  through  gates  or  unrepaired  fences, 
and  shall  keep  all  cattle  off  the  pasture  and  fields  while 
the  ground  is  soft,  especially  in  the  spring. 

4.  Said  tenant  shall  weigh  and  record  all  milk  from  pure- 
bred cows. 


Division  of 
proceeds 


Milk  checks 

Milk 

Eggs 

Garden 

Potatoes 

Firewood 


Sec.  V.  The  proceeds  of  said  farm  shall  be  divided  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  All  crops  and  livestock  products,  and  the  increase  of 
all  livestock,  shall  belong  half  to  each  party,  and  said 
tenant  shall  pay  one-half  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of 
same  to  said  landlord  immediately  upon  receipt  thereof, 
except  that — 

2.  After  deducting  a charge  for  hauling,  if  there  be  such 
a charge,  the  buyer  of  the  milk  or  cream  of  said  farm 
shall  make  out  equal  cheeks  to  said  landlord  and  tenant. 

3.  Said  tenant  shall  first  have  not  to  exceed  3 quarts  of 
milk  daily  for  family  use,  but  no  butter. 

4.  Said  tenant  shall  first  have  eggs  for  family  use,  but 
not  poultry. 

5.  Said  tenant  shall  have  all  the  produce  of  the  orchard 
and  garden  on  said  farm. 

6.  Potatoes  grown  outside  of  said  garden  shall  be  divided 

half  and  half,  and  said  tenant  shall  deliver  the  share  of  said 
landlord  at  his  house  in 

7.  Said  tenant  shall  have  firewood  sufficient  for  family 
use  from  the  down  and  dead  timber,  and  if  this  is  not 
sufficient,  from  live  trees  cut  where  said  landlord  shall 
direct. 


Sec.  VI.  At  the  end  of  the  lease,  the  joint  property  shall 
be  divided  as  follows: 

Sd^one^se  tenant  shall  divide  each  class  of  livestock,  as 

cows,  yearlings,  calves,  hogs,  chickens,  etc.,  into  two  groups, 
and  said  landlord  shall  take  his  choice  of  the  two  groups 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


9 


of  each.  In  ease  the  two  groups  cannot  be  made  nearly 
equal  in  value,  as  for  example,  where  there  is  an  odd  num- 
ber of  animals,  the  differences  in  value  shall  be  agreed  upon 
before  the  choice  is  made. 

2.  All  hay,  grain  and  fodder  shall  be  divided  by  meas- 
urement and  one-half  left  on  the  farm. 

Quittance  3.  Said  tenant  shall  leave  all  straw  on  the  farm  without 
menis^'  compensation. 

4.  Said  tenant  shall  leave  20  feet  of  silage  in  the  small 
silo,  the  same  as  there  is  now  at  the  beginning,  and  said 
landlord  shall  pay  said  tenant  for  half  of  such  silage  at  the 
prevailing  rate  for  silage  of  such  quality. 


Compen-  See.  VII.  If  said  lease  be  terminated  on  March  1 of  any 
sation  year  by  three  months’  notice  as  hereinbefore  provided, 

said  landlord  shall  reimburse  said  tenant  for  all  grass 
and  clover  seed  sown  the  preceding  spring,  and  pay 
said  tenant  for  all  plowing  done  in  the  preceding  fall 
at  the  rate  of  $2.00  per  acre,  and  also  for  all  other 
labor  and  expense  connected  with  sowing  fall  grains. 

Breach  of  Sec.  VIII.  If  said  tenant  shall  fail  to  cary  out  any  provi- 
contract  sion  of  this  lease,  it  shall  be  the  right  of  said  landlord 

to  enter  upon  and  take  possession  of  said  premises 
and  all  the  property  jointly  owned,  and  care  for  same 
till  settlement  can  be  made,  which  shall  be  done  as 
nearly  as  possible  according  to  the  terms  of  this  lease. 

Arbitration  dispute  shall  arise  over  any  of  the  settlements 

provided  for  in  this  lease,  the  matter  shall  be  left  to  a 
board  of  three  arbiters,  one  chosen  by  the  landlord, 
another  by  said  tenant,  and  the  third  by  the  two  first 
chosen,  and  the  decisions  of  this  board  shall  be  binding 
on  both  landlord  and  tenant. 

Sec.  X.  Said  landlord  hereby  reserves  right  of  entrance 
upon  said  premises  at  all  reasonable  hours  in  order  to 
work  and  make  improvements  as  he  shall  deem  ex- 
pedient. 

AND  said*  tenant  hereby  agrees  to  quit  said  farm 
peaceably  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 

SIGNATURES  OF  CONTRACTING 
WITNESSES  PARTIES 


Provisions  Common  to  Both  Leases 

In  analyzing  the  provisions  of  Lease  I.  and  Lease  II.  certain  gen- 
eral differences  between  cash  and  share  leases  must  be  kept  in  mind. 
First,  share  leases,  written  in  the  form  of  Lease  II,  are  in  many  re- 
spects partnership  agreements,  in  which  the  landlord  furnishes  the 


10 


Wisconsin  Keseakch  Bulletin  47 


farm  and  part  of  the  livestock  and  expenses,  and  the  tenant  furnishes  : 
the  labor  and  the  rest  of  the  livestock  and  expenses.  In  a partnership,  j 
the  policy  of  the  busines  is  determined  by  mutual  agreement.  At  share  ; 
rent,  therefore,  the  landlord  has  a larger  amount  of  control  and  super- 
vision of  the  farm  operations  than  at  cash  rent. 


Cash  renting  predominates  in  eastern  and  northern  Wisconsin,  in  south-  : 
western  Wisconsin,  and  in  a small  group  of  counties  in  west-central  ; 
Wisconsin,  share  renting  predominates  in  the  dairy  counties  of  the  Rock  ! 
River  Valley;  and  in  the  potato  andi  tobacco  sections  of  central  and  ; 
western  Wisconsin.  ' 

Second,  questions  as  to  which  party  shall  bear  certain  expenses  can  j 
be  settled  at  cash  rent  simply  by  adjusting  the  rent  to  fit.  At  share  | 
rent,  however,  custom  apportions  certain  expenses  to  the  landlord,  ; 
and  certain  expenses  to  the  tenant,  and  if  any  of  these  are  changed,  : 
the  customary  shares  of  the  two  parties  are  changed.  Landlords  and  ' 
tenants  can  always  arrange  expenses  as  they  see  fit,  however,  for  if 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


11 


the  lease  as  made  favors  either  party  in  one  place,  an  equal  offset  can 
be  provided  in  another,  even  if  it  requires  a cash  payment.  In  the 
discussion  following,  each  of  the  provisions  will  be  considered  by  itself 
as  to  its  fitness  and  workability;  the  equality  of  the  whole  division  of 
receipts  and  expenses  will  be  considered  later. 

Third,  any  given  share,  such  as  one-half,  is  not  the  same  on  farms 
of  all  sizes  and  qualities  with  constantly  rising  and  falling  land  values 
and  prices.  The  share  arrangement  adjusts  for  some  of  these  changes 
and  differences  automatically,  but  not  for  the  larger  part  of  them. 

Fourth,  at  share  rent  the  tenant  gets  only  a share  of  the  returns  from 
any  expenditure  of  money  and  labor,  and  he  furnishes  all  the  labor. 
He  is  therefore  greatly  interested  in  any  improvements  and  methods 
of  farming  that  will  save  him  labor,  and  he  is  only  part  interested  in 
those  which  increase  the  total  farm  income  without  reducing^  labor 
relative  to  it.  Fifth,  most  share  leases  are  made  for  shorter  terms 
than  cash  leases. 

Term,  The  two  leases  given  are  drawn  for  five  and  three  years, 
respectively,  with  arrangements  for  renewal.  Over  half  of  the  leases 
in  Wisconsin  are  for  either  three  or  five  years.  A few  are  drawn 
for  two  or  four  years.  More  are  drawn  for  one  year,  however,  than 
any  other  term.  Especially  is  this  true  of  share  leases  in  the  older 
farming  districts.  Long  leases  are  used  in  the  newer  northern  counties 
and  in  the  eastern  counties,  where  what  little  renting  there  is,  is  for  cash. 

Renewal.  Renewal  provisions  may  have  more  to  do  with  keeping 
tenants  from  moving  than  the  term  of  the  lease.  The  important  con- 
skleration  is  that  a date  be  set  for  notice  of  termination,  and  that 
this  date  be  set  far  enough  ahead  so  that  both  tenant  and  landlord 
can  safely  prepare  in  advance  'for  the  next  year’s  operations.  Three 
months  or  six  months  is  the  usual  notice.  If  no  date  is  set,  the  tenant 
may  leave  or  the  landlord  decide  to  get  a new  tenant,  any  time  up  to 
30  days  prior  to  the  end  of  the  term,  this  being  the  length  of  notice 
required  by  law.  The  landlords  who  refuse  to  set  a date  because  they 
want  to  keep  their  tenants  guessing  till  the  last  moment  are  preju- 
dicing their  own  interests  even  more  than  their  tenant’s.  Since  a lease 
can  always  be  renewed  anyway,  the  common  ^‘privilege  of  renewal”  and 
“mutual  consent”  clauses  have  little  value  except  as  an  expression  of 
good  intentions  in  advance. 

Short  vs.  Long  Leases. 

The  actual  choice  is  between  a short  lease  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  renewed  readily,  and  a longer  lease  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  termi- 
nated easily.  A landlord  can  get  rid  of  an  objectionable  tenant  under 
a long  lease  as  well  as  under  a short  one,  provided  his  lease  contains 
a satisfactory  termination  clause.  (See  “Termination  of  Lease”). 
He  will  have  more  trouble,  however,  with  a three  or  five-year  termin- 
able lease,  for  he  may  have  payments  for  disturbances  to  arrange. 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


and  compensation  for  work  done  on  next  year’s  crops.  But.  he  will 
escape  many  of  the  usual  heavy  losses  resulting  from  year-to-year 
tenancy. 

Landlords  do  not  always  realize  these  losses,  because  they  come  B 
gradually.  Besides,  money  lost  in  this  way  is  never  missed  as  much  | 
as  money  paid  out  of  hand  to  get  rid  of  an  undesirable  tenant.  A one-  h 
year  tenant  even  with  the  privilege  of  renewal  can  never  bank  on  making 
his  profit  next  year.  He  cannot  afford  to  spend  any  extra  money 
in  keeping  up  the  buildings  and  fences,  cutting  weeds  and  brush,  and 
stopping  washouts  and  gullies,  because  he  does  not  know  whether  he 
will  be  on  the  farm  to  enjoy  the  benefits  therefrom  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing. He  farms  so  that  he  can  save  the  most  money  from  the  farm 
each  year  at  a time.  As  a result,  the  farm  gradually  “runs  down” 
and  the  buildings  and  fences  go  to  ruin,  and  the  rents  that  ordinarily 
would  increase  from  year  to  year  remain  at  a standstill  or  go  backward. 
Or  else  the  landlord  spends  large  sums  of  money  in  repairing  damages 
and  losses  after  each  tenant  leaves.  All  the  modern  devices  for  con- 
trolling the  crop  rotation  and  sale  of  crops  and  regulating  the  amount 
of  livestock  kept  do  not  greatly  reduce  these  losses. 

Another  loss  comes  from  the  fact  that  one-year  tenants  cannot  pay 
as  high  rent  as  three-  and  five-year  tenants.  It  is  in  the  second  and 
third  years,  after  they  know  their  farms  better  and  their  neighborhoods 
better,  and  can  grow  better  crops  and  livestock  with  less  labor  and 
expense,  that  they  make  the  largest  incomes. 

The  losses  from  short  terms  are  even  greater  with  share  than  with  : 
cash  leases.  With  dairy  farming,  the  dairy  herd  is  the  all-important  ' 
thing.  Neither  landlord  nor  tenant  can  build  up  a good  producing  herd 
and  have  one-half  of  it  replaced  every  year  or  two  by  a fresh  lot  of 
scrubs.  Besides,  no  better  way  than  this  was  ever  devised  for  bringing 
contagious  abortion  and  tuberculosis  into  a herd.  The  year-to-year 
share  tenant  has  even  more  reasons  than  the  year-to-year  cash  tenant 
for  farming  a year  at  a time,  as  is  seen  very  clearly  wdierever  such  ; 
tenancy  is  not  connected  with  daily  farming. 

The  best  lease  for  Wisconsin  farming  is  probably  a three-  or  five-  ; 
year  lease  with  provisions  for  renewal,  termination,  compensation  for 
disturbance  and  unexhausted  improvements,  and  adequate  settlement, 
by  arbitration  or  otherwise,  at  the  end  of  any  year,  or  in  case  of  breach  - 
of  contract.  At  the  end  of  five  to  eight  years  a Wisconsin  tenant  is 
likely  to  be  looking  for  a larger  or  better  farm  to  rent,  or  for  a farm 
to  buy,  or  the  farm  may  have  to  be  sold  to  settle  up  the  estate.  In^ 
England  and  Scotland,  19  and  21  year  leases  were  long  advocated 
but  they  were  abandoned  after  a hundred  years  of  experience  with 
them.  Rents  change  greatly  over  a long  period,  and  as  a result  much 
injustice  was  done  to  landlord  in  periods  when  rents  were  rising,  and 
to  tenants  when  rents  were  falling.  Besides,  the  tenants,  even  with 
their  long  leases,  took  all  they  could  from  the  farms  during  the  last 
j^ears  of  the  lease. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


13 


When  the  Term  Begins. 

When  terms  begin  in  the  fall,  the  tenant  either  has  to  haul  his 
winter’s  supply  of  feed,  or  else  sell  his  feed  and  then  buy  again.  Such 
things  as  corn  in  the  shock,  silage,  and  hay  in  the  mow  are  hard  to 
measure  and  value.  In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  most  tenants  move 
in  the  fall  wherever  much  fall  plowing  or  fall  seeding  needs  to  be 
done.  The  general  opinion  is  that  off-going  tenants  cannot  be  trusted 
to  do  this  work  well.  The  line  of  division  between  fall  and  spring 
moving  passes  from  Waukesha  County  through  the  southern  half  of 
Dodge  County  and  thence  northward  through  Juneau  and  Adams 
Counties  to  Buffalo  County.  Tenants  to  the  north  of  this  line  move 
more  frequently  in  the  fall,  south  of  it  in  the  spring.  However,  spring 
moving  is  common  in  potato  sections.  Some  leasing  arrangement  is 
needed  which  will  get  the  off-going  tenants  to  do  the  fall  work  properly, 
so  that  more  tenants  can  move  in  the  spring.  (See  under  “Quittance 
Requirements,”  page  19.) 

Payments  and  Securities. 

The  usual  plan  under  cash  rent  calls  for  two  or  three  payments  a 
year,  the  last  one  a month  before  tlie  end  of  the  term,  and  the  others 
at  regular  intervals,  or  at  times  when  sales  are  usually  made  from  the 
farm.  Monthly  payments  are  becoming  very  common  on  dairy  farms. 
Oftentimes  a small  payment  is  required  in  advance  or  when  the  lease 
is  made  out. 

Under  share  leases,  the  milk  or  cream  checks  are  divided  monthly, 
or  when  received,  usually  by  the  persons  buying  the  milk  or  cream. 
Lai’ge  accounts,  like  receipts  from  livestock,  are  best  settled  immediate- 
ly. Once  a month  is  often  enough  to  settle  the  small  accounts  like 
feed,  repairs,  and  poultry  receipts.  Most  share  tenants  keep  fairl}^ 
good  accounts. 

A promissory  note  properly  countersigned  and  expiring  at  such 
time  as  the  rent  comes  due  is  the  commonest  form  of  security  for  cash 
rent  in  Wisconsin.  Chattel  mortgages  are  sometimes  applied  to  the 
tenant’s  livestock,  or,  under  grain  leases  or  wherever  the  crops  are  worth 
more  than  the  tenant’s  equipment,  to  the  growing  crops  instead.  Some 
landlords  ask  for  guarantors.  Crop  liens  are  also  occasionally  used 
in  Wisconsin,  but  no  law  has  ever  been  enacted  which  gives  the  holder 
thereof  a prior  claim  over  other  creditors  to  the  tenant’s  crops. 

The  security  which  landlords  have  with  share  tenants  is  the  certainty 
of  their  payments  from  month  to  month  and  their  control  over  the 
tenant’s  share  in  the  jointly  owned  crops,  livestock,  and  increase.  No 
other  security  is  needed.  In  case  the  landlord  has  “staked”  the  tenant, 
that  is,  has  sold  him  a half  of  the  herd  on  credit,  or  loaned  him  the 
money  wuth  which  to  buy  a herd,  then  a chattel  mortgage  is  the  usual 
form  of  security.  Such  mortgages  are  frequently  arranged  so  that  a 
portion  of  the  tenant’s  share  of  each  milk  check  is  automatically 
applied  to  the  mortgage. 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Following  are  examples  of  clauses  creating  various  kinds  of  security. 

“Said  tenant  does  hereby  offer,  and  said  landlord  does  hereby  accept, 

as  surety  for  the  rent  one  John  E.  R , whose  guarantee  of 

payment  and  hand  and  seal  are  hereby  made  a part  of  this  lease.” 

“Said  tenant  hereby  agrees  to  secure  payment  of  the  six  hundred 
(600)  dollar  rental  due  October  1,  1912,  by  a good  and  sufficient  chattel 
mortgage  on  all  his  livestock  and  machinery.” 

“ by  a good  and  sufficient  chattel  mortgage  on  all 

crops  as  soon  as  the  same  shall  be  up  and  growing  in  the  spring.” 

“Said  landlord  is  hereby  given  a lien  upon  the  crops  sown  on  said 
farm  and  the  same  when  harvested  as  security  for  the  performance  of 
all  the  conditions  and  provisions  of  said  lease.” 

The  promissory  note  given  as  security  for  rent  is  exactly  like  any 
other  promissory  note.  Chattel  mortgages  and  crop  liens  should  be 
made  out  by  competent  persons.  The  following  form  may  be  used 
for  a guarantee  of  payment: 

For  value  received,  I hereby  guarantee,  at  such  time  as  it  shall 
become  due,  the  payment  of  each  and.  every  rental  mentioned  in  the 
within  lease. 

(Seal) 

Duties  op  Tenant  and  Restrictions. 

Wisconsin  cash  leases  have  had  comparatively  few  restrictions, 
probably  fewer  than  they  should  have,  especially  in  the  eastern  counties, 
and  as  a result  cash-rented  farms  have  been  robbed  and  run  down  much 
worse  than  share-rented  farms.  A few  landlords  go  too  far,  however, 
putting  in  restrictions  in  the  matter  of  crop  rotation  and  choice  of 
crops  that  have  kept  good  tenants  from  doing  up-to-date  farming. 
Good  tenants  will  not  farm  under  such  a lease,  and  consequently 
such  landlords  get  only  poor  tenants. 

Share  leases  really  need  fewer  restrictions  because  the  landlord 
usually  takes  a hand  in  managing  the  farm  from  month  to  month. 

Crops  and  seeding.  Restrictions  in  share  leases  as  to  crops  are 
likely  in  southeastern  Wisconsin  to  take  the  form  of  prescribing 
definite  crop  rotations,  as  in  Lease  II;  in  southwestern  Wisconsin, 
limiting  the  acreage  of  corn;  in  Dodge  County  and  northward,  of 
requiring  at  least  a certain  number  of  acres  of  com,  or  “enough  to 
fill  the  silo”;  in  central  Wisconsin,  of  designating  the  number  of  acres 
of  corn,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat  and  potatoes.  Tobacco  acreage  is  also 
limited  in  many  leases. 

Cash  leases  seldom  restrict  crop  acreage  except  in  southwestern 
Wisconsin,  where  landlords  limit  the  acreage  of  com  so  as  to  save 
their  hillsides  from  washing.  These  same  landlords  also  prohibit  the 
plowing  of  the  natural  blue-grass  pastures  that  mantle  their  lime- 
stone hills. 

Keeping  meadows  properly  seeded  is  one  of  the  hardest  things  to 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


15 


manage  on  rented  farms.  Tenants  who  are  given  a free  hand  are 
likely  to  break  up  old  pastures  and  meadows  because  of  their  fertile, 
well-rested  soils.  Corn  is  the  favorite  crop  for  such  fields.  Some 
landlords,  on  the  other  hand,  either  restrict  too  much  or  do  not  provide 
for  enough  new  seeding,  so  that  in  consequence  rented  farms  have  far 
more  than  their  share  of  poor  and  run-out  meadows.  The  important 
thing  is  to  arrange  to  have  new  seeding  always  replacing  the  old. 
This  is  hard  to  arrange  because  clover  seed  often  fails  to  catch,  or  new 
seeding  winterkills.  Lease  I.  leaves  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  the 
landlord.  If  the  tenant  is  required  to  seed  a definite  number  of  acres 
each  year,  he  will  have  too  much  when  it  catches  and  comes  through 
the  winter,  and  not  enough  in  other  years.  Following  are  additional 
provisions  found  in  recent  leases : 

‘^There  shall  he  40  acres  kept  in  meadow  and  no  old  meadow  shall 
be  plowed  till  new  meadow  has  been  seeded  to  take  its  place.” 

“Said  tenant  shall  seed  down  as  much  as  he  breaks  uj)  each  year, 
and  he  shall  continue  to  sow  seed  until  he  has  such  an  amount 
successfully  seeded.” 

“No  seeding  shall  be  plowed  which  is  not  four  years  old.” 

“Not  less  than  25  acres  shall  be  kept  in  meadow.” 

“Said  tenant  shall  leave  not  less  than  15  acres  seeded  down  to  clover 
and  timothy  at  the  end  of  the  lease.” 

“Said  tenant  shall  seed  all  small  grain  to  clover  and  timothy,  and 
break  up  no  old  sod  except  as  directed  by  said  landlord.” 

Grass  and  clover  seed.  Under  share  leases,  bills  for  grass  and  clover 
seed  are  usualy  shared  equally,  even  with  year-to-year  leases.  Oc- 
casionally landlords  pay  for  the  seed  the  last  year  on  longer  leases. 
(See  under  “Compensation  for  Unexhausted  Improvements”  page  21) 
Under  cash  leases,  either  the  landlord  pays  for  all  grass  and  clover 
seed,  as  in  the  five  counties  in  southwestern  Wisconsin  and  a dozen 
more  counties  in  northwestern  Wisconsin,  or  the  tenant  pays  for  all 
the  grass  and  clover  seed,  except  that  the  landlord  may  do  it  the  last 
year  under  many  three  and  five  year  leases  in  force  in  the  Fox 
and  Rock  River  valleys. 

Tenants  should  never  be  expected  to  buy  grass  and  clover  seed 
under  one-year  leases,  either  cash  or  share,  nor  under  longer  leases, 
unless  they  are  to  be  reimbursed  in  case  the  lease  is  unexpectedly 
terminated.  Under  cash  leases,  it  is  usually  best  for  the  landlord 
to  buy  such  seed,  especially  on  light  or  thin  soils.  Some  tenants 
prefer  to  do  their  own  buying,  however,  because  they  say  the 
landlords  are  “stingy  with  the  seed.”  In  either  case  the  rent  can 
be  adjusted  accordingly.  Under  land-and-stock  share  leases,  it  is  proper 
to  divide  such  expenses  equally,  but  shift  them  to  the  landlord  the 
last  year  of  the  lease,  or  in  case  of  termination  of  lease.  More  and 
more  landlords,  however,  especially  in  sections  where  cash  and  grain 
renting  prevails,  are  buying  all  grass  and  clover  seed  and  providing 
an  offset  for  this  in  some  other  part  of  the  lease.  Recently  many 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


landlords  in  Green,  Dane,  Jefferson,  Rock  and  Walworth  Counties  have 
begun  experimenting  with  this  plan.  Something  must  be  done  to  im- 
prove the  meadows  on  rented  farms. 

Following  are  two  recent  provisions  as  to  the  amount  of  seed  fur- 
nished or  sown  per  acre: 


“Said  landlord  shall  furnish  100  lbs.  of  clover  seed  and  50  lbs. 
of  timothy  seed  each  year,  and  said  tenant  shall  j)roperly  sow  and 
care  for  it.” 

“Said  tenant  shall  furnish  all  grass  seed,  and  sow  it  at  the  rate  of 
clover  seed  and  timothy  seed  per  acre.” 


Selling  crops.  Land-and-stock  share  leases  usually  require  mutual 
agreement  or  landlord’s  permission  before  crops  can  be  sold.  Both 
cash  and  share  leases  usually  require  all  straw  to  be  left  on  the  farm, 
and  some  require  hay  and  cornstalks  in  addition.  Many  share  leases 
either  require  enough  livestock  to  be  kept  to  consume  all  feed  grown 
on  the  farm  or  else  specify  a minimum  number  of  cattle.  Cash  leases 
are  also  beginning  to  adopt  this  plan.  Such  restrictions  as  these  may 
easily  become  too  rigid  under  an  unreasonable  landlord. 

Manure.  Tenants  will  usually  haul  all  manure  gladly,  but  on  strange 
farms  they  do  not  always  know  where  it  is  needed  most,  and  besides 
they  are  likely  to  slight  the  fields  farthest  from  the  barns,  especially 
if  working  under  one-year  leases.  Consequently  the  landlord  is  fre-  . 
quently  given  the  right  to  tell  the  tenant  where  to  put  the  manure,  or  ..i 
some  definite  agreement  is  entered  in  the  lease  as  to  where  the  manure  ^' 
is  to  be  spread.  ■; 

The  time  of  hauling  is  also  given  in  many  leases.  This  should  never  p 
be  so  arranged  that  a departing  tenant  has  to  haul  manure  for  his 
successor,  unless  the  landlord  wants  to  pay  him  for  it.  Following  are  ; 
provisions  such  as  are  sometimes  given ; _.i 

“Said  tenant  is  to  haul  the  manure  now  in  the  yard  and  spread  it  on-^ 
the  south  field  across  the  railroad  track.” 

“All  manure  is  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  in  the  fall  and  spring, 
except  in  the  fall  of  the  last  year  of  the  lease,  said  tenant  shall  per-$ 
form  this  work  only  at  the  hire  of  said  landlord.”  S 

“All  manure  is  to  be  hauled  out  daily  as  long  as  the  cows  are  keptS 
in  the  stable,  except  when  the  ground  is  too  soft  for  hauling,  and  all  J 
other  manure  to  be  cleaned  out  of  the  yards  at  least  once  a year.” 

T^ertilizer.  Very  little  commercial  fertilizer  is  used  on  rented  farmsg 
in  Wisconsin,  but  a very  considerable  amount  of  fertility  is  boughtg 
in  the  form  of  feeds  and  concentrates.  The  tenant  pays  for  half  of  this® 
on  share-rented  farms,  and  all  of  it  on  cash-rented  farms.  He  getsf 
the  advantage  of  it  in  the  next  jmar’s  crop,  if  he  is  on  the  farm;  but^ 
in  many  cases  he  is  somewhere  else.  The  fertilizer  values  from  concen-fi 
trates  last  over  several  years,  the  same  as  do  those  of  many  commercial^ 
fertilizers.  In  England,  tenants  have  long  been  allowed  compensation® 
for  any  part  of  this  fertility  which  is  not  used  up  when  they  leave.m 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


17 


Some  provision  must  be  made  for  this  in  Wisconsin  if  tenant  farming 
is  to  prosper. 

Gullies  and  noxious  iveeds.  Many  landlords  are  now  paying  for  all 
extra  or  nnnsnal  work  needed  in  handling  washouts  and  noxious  weeds. 
They  frequently  are  retii:ed  farmers  and  actually  do  the  work  them- 
selves. Or  they  may  hire  the  tenant  or  some  member  of  the  tenant’s 
family  to  work  with  them.  Or  they  may  hire  the  tenant  to  do  it  on 
days  when  the  land  is  too  wet  to  work  at  so  much  a day  or  at  a flat 
rate  by  the  year.  A tenant  can  be  expected  not  to  plow  through  the 
seeding  in  ravines  and  gullies,  and  to  plow  and  cultivate  the  land  so 
that  it  will  wash  as  little  as  possible;  also  to  keep  his  plow  out  of 
fence-row  patches  of  quack  grass  and  Canada  thistle  so  as  to  keep 
them  from  spreading  over  the  fields;  and  to  destroy  such  weeds  as 
interfere  with  his  particular  crops.  And,  if  he  is  a one-year  tenant, 
this  is  all  that  can  be  expected  of  him.  Something  more  can  safelj^ 
be  asked  of  tenants  with  longer  leases,  but  not  much  more.  Especially, 
tenants  cannot  be  expected  to  clear  a farm  of  noxious  weeds  left  to 
seed  and  spread  by  a previous  slipsliod  tenant.  Checking  a washout 
or  destrojdng  a thistle  patch  is  too  long  a job  for  even  a five-year 
tenant  to  handle  alone.  The  landlord  profits  from  such  labor,  and 
the  landlord  should  help  with  it. 

Keeping  the  farm  tidy.  The  landlord  should  do  his  best  to  make 
his  building  and  yard  neat  and  tidy,  and  the  tenant  should  want  to 
do  his  share  to  keep  np  this  appearance.  This  means  such  things  as 
cutting  the  weeds  in  tlie  yards,  roads,  and  fence-row,  and  keeping 
tools  and  machinery  under  cover.  If  it  does  not  always  pay  in  dollars 
and  cents,  it  surely  does  in  satisfaction. 

Fences.  The  commonest  arrangements  concerning  fencing  are: 


When  the  landlord  furnishes: 

1.  Materials. 

2.  Materials  for  repairs,  and 

materials  and  labor  for  new 
fences  and  for  replacing 
old  fences. 

3.  Materials  for  repairs  and  for 

building  all  fences  and  la- 
bor for  building  and  re- 
placing line  fences. 

4.  Materials,  and  one-half  of 

labor  in  either  2 or  3. 

5.  i^s  in  any  of  above,  but  the 

fence  posts  in  the  form  of 
timber  growing  in  the 
woods. 

6.  Materials  and  repairs. 

7.  All  materials  and  labor. 


The  tenant  furnishes: 

1.  Labor. 

.2.  Labor  for  repairing  old 
fences. 

3.  Labor  for  all  repairs,  and  foi 

building  inside  fences. 

4.  Labor  for  all  repairs  and 

one-half  of  other  labor  in 
2 or  3. 

5.  As  in  any  of  above,  with 

cutting  of  fence  posts  in 
addition. 

b.  Definite  amount  of  new 
fence. 

7.  Higher  rent,  or  offset  in  some 
other  part  of  lease. 


A one-year  tenant  is  not  going  to  build  any  new  fences  if  he  can 
help  it.  Neither  is  a long-term  tenant  in  the  last  years  of  his  lease. 


18 


Wisconsin  Eesearch  Bulletin  47 


Any  new  fences  which  tenants  do  build  if  left  to  themselves  are 
likely  to  be  made  about  strong  enough  to  last  till  their  leases  run 
out.  Because  tenants  do  not  repair  fences  in  proper  time,  they 
(juickly  fall  to  ruin.  Landlords,  therefore,  soon  weary  of  fence- 
building,  and  the  tenant  has  to  patch  up  the  old  fence  for  another  year. 
Hence  fences  on  rented  farms  are  frequently  “all  toggles  and  no 
fence.” 

The  very  least,  therefore,  that  a wise  landlord  can  do  is  to  furnish 
half  the  labor  for  building  all  new  fences.  Tenants  can  be  expected 
to  make  such  repairs  as  are  necessary  to  keep  cattle  from  getting  out, 
but  this  is  about  all.  Many  landlords,  however,  are  concluding  that  it 
pays  them  to  take  care  of  their  fences  after  they  are  built  so  as  to 
make  them  last  lo)iger.  Some  of  them  even  up  the  costs  of  this  by 
requiring  the  tenant  each  year  to  build  a definite  number  of  rods  of  new 
fence  according  to  certain  specifications. 

Where  the  landlord  hires  fence  work  done  himself,  it  is  usually, 
but  not  always,  best  for  him  to  hire  the  tenant  to  do  the  work  on  rainy 
or  wet  days.  It  helps  out  the  tenant’s  income  and  makes  him  better 
satisfied. 

Upkeep  op  Buildings  and  Improvements 

Lease  I.  provides  an  arrangement  which  is  becoming  common  in  leases 
today.  The  house  and  premises  are  to  be  put  in  condition  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lease,  so  that  the  tenant  shall  not  suffer  for  the  neg- 
lect or  acts  of  his  ijredecessor.  After  that,  the  tenant  is  to  repair  all 
breakages  to  doors,  windows,  etc.,  arising  from  his  own  acts  or  neglect 
^ or  those  of  his  employees,  do  the  ordinary  work  on  other  repairs,  as- 
sume full  responsibility  for  all  ordinary  pump  and  windmill  repairs, 
and  make  such  repairs  to  the  inside  of  the  house  as  he  desires.  So 
many  of  the  breakages  to  doors,  windows,  pumps,  windmills,  and  so 
forth,  are  due  to  neglect  and  misuse  that  the  landlord  should  not  stand 
the  resulting  losses.  The  inside  repairs,  such  as  painting  and  paper- 
ing, concern  very  closely  the  tenant’s  family  and  should  be  made  by 
the  tenant.  Such  rejiairs  as  shingling  and  outside  painting  should,  of 
course,  be  made  by  th.e  owner.  The  cistern  should  be  put  in  condition 
at  the  start  by  the  landlord,  and  after  that  cared  for  by  the  tenant. 

Under  such  an  arrangement  the  landlord  must  require  the  de['arting 
tenant  to  leave  the  ])remises  in  good  condition,  or  else  go  to  considerable 
expense  to  get  things  ready  for  the  next  tenant.  With  one-year  leases, 
it  will  mean  making  most  of  the  repairs  himself  between  leases. 

Improvements.  Whenever  a landlord  agrees  to  certain  inqirovements 
in  making  a bargain  with  a prospective  tenant,  the  agreement  should 
be  written  into  the  lease.  If  the  tenant  is  to  assist  in  the  work,  this 
should  be  put  into  the  lease  also.  With  the  longer  leases,  the  tenant  can 
he  ex])ected  to  do  the  ordinary  hauling  and  a reasonable  amount  of  the 
common  unskilled  labor.  He  should  not  be  ex])ected,  however,  to  haul 
without  ]>ay  the  gravel  for  a concrete  silo,  or  dig  a 10-foot  l)asement  for 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


19 


a 10  by  100  foot  barn,  except  that  whenever  the  tenant  has  free  feed  for 
liis  horses  he  should  contribute  horse  labor  for  such  work  free;  nor 
should  the  tenant’s  wife  be  expected  to  board  the  landlord’s  workmen 
for  nothinii'.  Usually  it  is  no  hardship  for  a tenant  to  haul  ordinary 
fence  and  building-  materials,  inasmuch  as  he  has  trips  to  make  to  town 
anyway.  Of  course,  the  landlord  need  not  always  pay  cash  for  such 
work;  he  can  instead,  for  example,  exempt  the  tenant  from  working 
the  road-taxes,  or  hire  some  irdditional  pasture  or  meadow  land  for  him. 

AVith  one -year  leases,  the  tenant  can  be  expected  to  help  very  little 
with  permanent  improvements,  unless  he  is  to  get  pay  for  his  work  in 
case  he  has  to  move  within,  say,  three  years. 

Firewood.  The  tenant  should  understand  that  trees  are  the  property 
of  the  landlord  and  that  he  has  no  rights  concerning  them  except  as 
granted  by  the  landlord.  Lease  I.  contains  the  usual  provisions  on  this 
subject.  Sometimes  it  is  stated  in  addition  that  the  tenant  must  pile 
and  burn  his  brush.  In  other  leases,  the  tenant  is  allowed  firewood, 
but  he  must  cut  no  trees  except  where  the  landlord  directs. 

Firewood  is  an  important  item  in  the  living  expenses  of  the  tenant’s 
family,  and  many  farms  today  have  no  woodlots.  There  is  no  reason 
why  tenants  should  have  free  fuel  any  more  than  free  clothing,  except 
that  custom  iu  the  past  has  given  it  to  them,  and  cash  rents  and  share- 
leasing arrangements  have  been  adjusted  to  this  custom.  As  long  as 
farms  were  well-stocked  with  timber  it  was  good  economy  to  give  the 
tenant  fuel  and  make  the  rent  to  fit.  Therefore,  wherever  fuel  is 
not  furnished,  the  fact  should  be  clearly  recognized  when  the  lease  is 
made  out  and  rents  and  terms  of  share  leases  properly  adjusted. 

Who  Pays  the  Taxes 

Under  share  rent,  usually  each  party  pays  the  taxes  on  the  part  of 
the  property  which  he  owns  separately,  and  half  of  the  taxes  on  the 
jointly  owned  property.  The  tenant  usually  works  or  pays  the  road 
taxes.  Lease  II  requires  the  landlord  to  pay  the  taxes  on  the  jointly 
owned  property  as  an  offset  to  certain  machine  bills.  Lease  I gives 
the  usual  practice  under  cash  rent  contracts.  In  northern  Wisconsin, 
however,  and  a few  of  the  counties  near  the  Illinois  line,  the  landlord 
frequently  pays  the  road  taxes  along  with  the  other  taxes.  The  new 
road  system  is  bringing  this  about.  If  the  lease  reads,  ^The  tenant  shall 
work  the  road  taxes”  and,  as  frequently  happens,  the  tenant  is  gneii  no 
chance  to  work  them  by  the  road  officials,  it  is  doubtful  if  he  can  be 
made  to  pay  them  in  cash.  The  newer  leases  therefore  frequently  read 
“shall  work  or  pay  the  road  taxes.”  A few  cash  rent  contracts  require 
the  tenant  to  pay  the  real  estate  taxes,  but  this  is  not  good  practice  and 
should  be  discouraged. 

AVhex"  the  Tenant  Goes 

Quittance  Requirements.  These  are  requirements  to  leave  certain 
things  on  the  farm  at  the  end  of  the  lease  in  the  same  amount  and 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


•quality  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  lease.  This  is  the  plan  most  gen- 
erally used  in  Wisconsin  to  bridge  over  the  gap  between  the  going 
and  coming  tenant  and  keep  farming  operations  continuous.  Under 
all  types  of  leases,  share  or  cash,  tenants  are  commonly  required  to 
leave  their  strawstacks,  and  sometimes  they  must  leave  their  cornstalks 
in  addition.  When  the  change  is  made  in  the  spring,  the  only  other 
requirements  usually  needed  are  those  which  specify  a certain  number 
of  acres  of  clover  or  timothy  seeding  or  rye  or  winter  wheat.  In  some 
sections  the  departing  tenant  is  required  to  leave  feed  enough  to  keep 
the  new  tenant’s  livestock  till  the  new  crop  is  ready,  especially  feeds 
that  are  hard  to  move,  like  silage. 

With  fair  moving,  however,  either  the  tenant  must  haul  his  whole 
winter’s  feed  or  a large  number  of  quittance  requirements  must  be 
provided.  The  second  plan  is  usually  adopted  as  the  better  of  the 
two  evils.  The  departing  tenant  harvests  his  crop,  measures  up  an 
amount  equal  to  what  he  found  on  the  farm  at  the  beginning  of  his 
lease,  sells  the  surplus,  and  drives  his  cattle  to  his  next  leasehold.  The 
change  is  made  early  enough  so  that  the  new  tenant  has  time  to  do  his 
fall  plowing,  but  too  late  for  sowing  winter  grains.  The  corn  is 
either  put  in  the  silo  or  left  in  the  field  in  the  shock.  The  amounts 
to  be  left  for  the  next  tenant  are  usually  stated  in  an  inventory,  which 
is  made  part  of  the  lease.  Following  is  a sample  of  such  an  inventory : 

Silage — within  8 feet  of  top  of  silo  when  settled. 

Corn  in  crib — 6 feet  in  the  east  crib. 

Corn  in  the  field — 14  acres  in  shocks. 

Hay — east  mow  to  top  of  ladder,  clover;  west  mow,  12  feet,  clover 
and  timothy. 

Oats — 1200  bushels,  measured  in  the  bin. 

Barley — 200  bushels,  measured  in  the  bin. 

Quittance  requirements  do  not  work  very  well  on  the  whole.  No 
one  enjoys  “paying  for  a dead  horse.”  It  is  hard  for  a tenant  to  do 
work  thoroughly  well  from  which  .his  successor  is  going  to  benefit 
wholly.  Grass  seeding  the  last  year  may  fail  to  catch,  wheat  may 
winterkill,  or  crops  spoil;  and  the  landlord  finds  it  hard  to  compel 
the  tenant  to  make  up  the  deficit.  Such  requirements  should,  there- 
fore, be  used  only  where  they  are  necessary  to  prevent  Avasteful 
practices. 

One  difficulty  is  in  the  matter  of  the  quality  of  the  feeds  left  on 
the  farm.  Corn  in  the  shock  may  be  very  poor  the  last  year  of  a lease 
if  the  season  is  unfavorable  or  the  crop  is  not  properly  tended.  Silage 
may  vary  as  much  as  corn  in  the  shock.  The  same  is  true  of  hay  in  the 
mow.  The  only  way  to  handle  this  is  to  provide  in  the  lease  for  bar- 
gaining Avith  the  departing  tenant  as  to  the  quality  of  the  crop,  and 
calling  in  an  impartial  board  of  appraisers  in  case  of  disagreement. 

Anotlier  difficulty  is  that  crops  may  be  short  the  last  year.  Leases 
usually  provide  that  the  tenant  must  make  good  in  cash  such  short- 
ages, paying  at  the  market  rate  at  the  time,  or  at  a rate  agreed  upon 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


21 


in  advance.  The  latter  plan  is  the  fairer,  because  in  a year  of  crop 
failures  when  prices  are  high,  it  may  ruin  a tenant  to  make  up  his 
deficits. 

Under  share  leases,  only  the  landlord’s  share  of  the  necessary  feed 
is  usually  to  be  left.  This  means  that  each  new  tenant  must  either 
haul  his  share  of  feed  from  his  last  leasehold  or  else  sell  and  buy  again. 
Since  silage  cannot  be  hauled  to  advantage,  the  departing  tenant  leaves 
his  share  as  well  as  the  landlord’s.  He  is  compensated  for  this  by  an 
equal  amount  left  by  the  tenant  before  him.  Probably  this  plan 
should  be  extended  and  made  to  apply  to  all  feeds.  The  objection  to  it 
is  that  it  would  transfer  to  the  landlord  the  carrying  of  the  whole 
investment  in  feed  on  hand.  The  landlord  would  virtually  provide 
all  the  feed  for  tlie  tenant  till  the  new  crop  was  harvested.  The  tenant 
would  not  pay  back  this  feed  till  the  end  of  the  lease.  But  this  diffi- 
culty could  be  obviated  by  requiring  each  tenant  to  buy  half  of  the 
feed  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  lease,  and  sell  half  of  it  back  to 
the  landlord  at  the  end  of  the  lease.  Or  the  transactions  could  be 
arranged  directly  between  the  in-coming  and  the  out-going  tenant  as  it 
usually  is  in  England.  (Such  a plan  would  be  closely  related  to  ‘^com- 
pensation for  unexhausted  improvements”  described  below).  In 
effect,  this  plan  would  amount  to  a quittance  requirement  in  feed  equal 
to  the  remainder  of  a normal-  year’s  crop  at  the  time  of  moving,  the 
in-coming  tenant  being  obliged  to  buy  his  proper  share  of  this  upon 
date  of  securing  possession.  It  would  require,  it  is  true,  considerable 
bargaining  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  lease,  but  these  are  the 
very  best  times  for  landlords  and  tenants  to  bargain.  At  any  event, 
it  would  be  better  than  hauling  a whole  winter’s  supply  of  feed,  or  even 
a spring’s  supply. 

Quittance  requirements  in  fall  plowing,  winter  grains,  seeding,  and 
hauling  manure  should  be  imposed  only  where  strictly  necessary  to 
keep  up  crop  rotations  or  insure  proper  soil  conditions  for  the  next 
year’s  crops. 

^‘Compensation  for  unexhausted  improvements”  is  the  name  for  a 
plan  used  in  England  which  bridges  over  the  gap  between  tenants 
much  better  than  quittance  requirements.  As  this  plan  is  used  in 
England,  a farm  is  rented  from  year  to  year,  but  with  the  understand- 
ing that  in  case  a tenant  is  required  to  leave,  he  is  to  be  paid  for  all 
work  which  he  has  done  from  which  he  has  not  had  time  to  derive  the 
full  benefit.  The  tenants  therefore  go  ahead  just  as  if  they  owned 
the  farms  and  always  intended  remaining  upon  them.  They  buy 
lime  and  fertilizer  and  put  it  on  the  land,  tile-drain,  ditch,  clear  forest, 
lay  down  pasture  and  meadow,  make  repairs  and  erect  barns  and 
sheds.  The  landlord  must  consent  to  these  improvements  only  if 
they  involve  a large  investment.  What  the  tenant  ^ receives  as  com- 
pensation when  he  leaves  is  partly  a matter  of  lease,  partly  of  custom, 
and  partly  of  arbitration.  Either  the  new  tenant  pays  the  departing 
tenant  direct  for  these  improvements,  or  he  pays  the  landlord,  who 
has  settled  with  the  departing  tenant. 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


The  l)egiiiniiig>:  of  such  practice  have  already  appeared  in  Wis- 
consin in  such  provisions  as  the  following : 

“Said  landlord  shall  pay  said  tenant  at  the  rate  of  two  (2)  dollars 
per  acre  for  all  fall  plowing  he  shall  do  in  the  last  year  of  the  lease.” 
“Said  tenant  shall  be  paid  25  cents  iier  load  for  all  manure  which 
he  shall  haul  after  hai'vest  in  the  last  year  of  the  lease.” 

“Said  landlord  shall  pay  said  tenant  two-thirds  of  the  original  cost  of 
the  silo  at  the  end  of  said  lease.”  (3-year  lease). 

Such  provisions  as  these  could  well  be  extended  to  cover  such  things 
as  grass  and  clover  seeding,  winter  grains,  small  fruits,  house  rej)airs, 
new  fences,  fence  posts,  seeds,  feeds  and  concentrates,  manures  and 
fertilizers.  The  compensation  in  the  case  of  manures  and  fertilizers 
should  be  in  proportion  to  the  ainoimt  of  the  fertilizer  value  that  is 
still  left  in  the  soil.  Extensive  experiments  have  been  conducted 
at  Rothamsted,  England,  to  determine  the  fertilizer  values  remain- 
ing at  the  end  of  each  year  after  application. 

Compensation  for  unexhausted  improvements  is  needed  more  with 
one-year  lease  than  with  longer  leases.  At  present  in  some  sections  ten- 
ants remain  as  long  on  each  farm  under  one-year  leases  as  under  longer 
leases;  but  still  they  never  know  what  the  next  year  will  bring  and  so 
plan  each  year’s  profits  alone.  Could  they  be  assured  of  compensation, 
they  would  go  ahead  on  a long-time  basis.  Although  the  plan  is  used 
only  with  cash  renting  in  England  it  is  equally  applicable  to  share 
renting.  The  only  difference  would  be  that  the  tenants  own  only  a paid 
interest  in  many  expenditures  on  share-rented  farms. 

Fruits.  Lease  I.  includes  among  its  quittance  requirements  a small- 
fruit  garden.  Unfortunately  many  tenant  farms  are  without  small 
fruit.  A landlord  should  try  such  a plan  as  given  here,  or  some  plan 
providing  compensation  for  unexhausted  improvements,  or  else  provide 
the  small  fruit  himself.  He  cannot  afford  to  let  his  tenants  live  without 
these  pleasiu-es  of  life  on  the  farm.  A contented  tenant  family  is  worth 
much  more  to  him  than  the  cost  of  the  small-fruit  garden, 

T ermination  of  lease.  Leases  for  more  than  one  year  usually  are 
arranged  so  that  they  can  be  terminated  at  the  end  of  any  year  by  the 
giving  of  notice,  usually  from  60  days  to  6 months  in  advance.  Even 
without  a breach  of  contract,  things  may  happen  which  make  the  land- 
loi'd  or  tenant  want  to  end  the  lease,  and  some  peaceful  way  of  doing 
this  should  always  be  provided.  Most  termination  clauses  provide  that 
the  tenant  is  to  receive  full  compensation  for  all  work  done  for  the 
next  year’s  crop.  The  landlord  recovers  this  amount  from  the  pur- 
chaser in  case  he  is  selling  his  farm,  or  from  the  new  tenant. 

Vaiiment  for  disturbatice.  Witli  termination  clauses  is  frequently 
combined  some  provision  for  “payment  for  disturbance,”  as  this  ex- 
])i-ession  is  used  in  England.  If  a tenant  who  lias  been  doing  honest 
farming  on  a long-time  basis  is  asked  to  move,  he  is  entitled  to  some 
recoin jiense  in  addition  to  pay  for  work  done  on  next  year’s  crop. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


23 


He  has  learned  how  to  handle  his  farm;  he  has  planned  many  things 
that  have  not  yet  borne  fruit.  The  landlord  is  likewise  entitled  to  some 
recompense  if  his  plans  are  disturbed  by  the  tenant. 

Lease  I provides  for  3 month’s  notice  and  $100  for  disturbance,  but 
nothing-  for  compensation.  Following  are  two  other  arrangements. 

“To  hold  for  five  years  from  March  1,  1912,  unless  terminated  by 
either  party  by  giving  notice  in  December  preceding  and  paying  to  the 
other  party  one  hundred  (100)  dollars  and  said  landlord  paying  to  said 
tenant  two  (2)  dollars  an  acre  for  all  fall  plowing  and  fall  seeding 
done  and  market  price  less  cost  of  hauling  to  market  all  fall  grain  sown. 

“This  lease  may  be  terminated  at  ninety  days  notice  prior  to  any 
March  1st,  by  written  notice  and  forfeiting  from  said  annual  rental 
four  hundred  (400)  dollars  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  said  term, 
three  hundred  (300)  dollars  the  end  of  the  second  year  of  said  term,  and 
one  hundred  (100)  dollars  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  of  said  term. 
In  case  of  the  death  of  either  party,  this  lease  terminates  on  March 
1st  following.” 

Sale  clauses.  Notice  of  termination  and  payment  for  disturbance 
are  also  provided  in  most  of  the  following  sale  clauses  allowing  the 
landlord  to  sell  the  farm  during  the  term  of  the  lease ; 

“Said  landlord  reserves  the  privilege  of  selling  said  farm  at  any  time, 
and  said  tenant  shall  vacate  the  premises  at  thirty  days  notice,  receiv- 
ing payment  for  all  work  done  not  yet  realized  upon,  but  if  said  tenant 
shall  have  his  spring  grain  planted  he  shall  not  be  required  to  leave  said 
farm  till  November  1st.” 

“In  case  of  sale  of  said  farm,  said  landlord  shall  give  said  tenant 
thirty  days’  notice  of  time  to  move  from  said  farm,  and  shall  pay  him 
for  work  done  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  (75)  dollars  per  month,  to- 
gether with  all  moneys  spent  by  said  tenant  for  labor,  seed  and  feed, 
but  there  shall  be  subtracted  from  this  amount  all  moneys  received  by 
said  tenant  to  date  from  the  operation  of  the  farm.” 

“Said  landlord  may  sell  said  farm  at  any  time,  but  he  hereby  agrees 
to  compensate  said  tenant  for  all  work  done  not  yet  realized  upon,  and 
to  pay  for  all  damages  he  may  cause  to  said  tenant,  the  amount  of  all 
these  payments  to  be  awarded  by  a committee  of  three,  one  of  whom 
shall  be  chosen  by  said  landlord,  another  by  said  tenant,  and  the  third 
by  the  two  first  chosen.” 

“Said  landlord  may  sell  said  farm  at  any  time,  and  said  tenant  shall 
move  off  on  March  1st  following,  but  said  tenant  shall  always  have 
sixty  days  notice  to  leave,  and  shall  receive  one  hundred  and  fifty  (150  ) 
dollars  as  damages,  except  on  the  last  year  of  the  term.” 

Failure  to  carry  out  lease.  Lease  I.  has  the  sensible  remedy  for 
failure  to  carry  out  the  lease.  It  enables  either  party  to  hire  the  work 
done  which  the  other  has  neglected  to  do,  and  to  collect  the  cost  of  the 
same  from  the  other  party;  and  if  this  is  not  satisfactory,  to  terminate 
the  lease  upon  reasonable  notice  the  following  March.  The  various 
clauses  in  leases  empowering  the  landlord  to  “expel  the  tenant  forth- 
with,” oi-  “at  his  option,”  or  to  declare  the  lease  “null  and  void,”  are 


1 


24  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 

mostly  intended  as  scareheads.  The  wise  plan  is  for  the  landlord  to  get 
along-  as  best  he  can  with  his  tenant  till  the  end  of  the  year.  If  the 
tenant  is  clearly  beyond  all  reason,  then  according  to  law,  he  can  be 
ousted  at  any  time  on  30  days^  notice  without  provision  in  the  lease. 

Provisions  Found  Only  in  Lease  II. 

Man  labor.  Share  leases  encourage  tenants  to  farm  many  acres 
with  a small  amount  of  help.  Landlords  tell  them  they  are  mistaken, 
but  tenants  pay  the  labor  bills  and  have  a different  view.  Lease  II 
requires  the  tenant  to  hire  a definite  number  of  men.  Another  arrange- 
ment now  working  successfully  wherever  tried  in  the  share-renting 
belt  in  southern  Wisconsin  requires  the  tenant  to  hire  a minimum 
amount  of  help,  as  in  Lease  II,  and  then  requires  the  landlord  to  pay 
half  or  some  other  part  of  the  wages  of  an  additional  man.  This  plan 
frankly  recognizes  that  the  tenant  will  make  his  largest  income  with, 
say,  one  hired  man  and  that  any  additional  help,  though  it  may  swell 
the  total  farm  income,  and  the  landlord’s  half  of  it,  will  cost  him  more 
than  he  gets  back,  and  therefore  requires  the  landlord  to  pay  his  half 
of  the  second  hired  man.  More  landlords  follow  the  practice  of  help-  •- 
ing  the  tenant  themselves  when  work  is  pressing,  or  hiring  extra  day  .. 
help  for  him,  or  adding  something  to  the  hired  man’s  wages  so  as  to  - 
get  a good  one. 

Many  landlords  oppose  this  practice,  saying  the  bars  must  not  be 
let  down  for  the  tenants  at  any  cost.  Offsets  can  always  be  provided, 
however,  in  other  parts  of  the  lease.  The  present  plan  of  making  the  ' 
tenant  hire  all  the  labor  is  not  going  to  bring  about  the  kind  of  farm-  ' 
ing  that  is  needed  today.  If  landlords  will  not  change,  as  surely  as 
farming  becomes  more  intensive,  cash  rent  will  drive  out  share  rent  as 
it  has  in  England.  If  they  adopt  the  plan  proposed,  then  as  farming  , 
becomes  intensive  and  more  labor  is  hired  on  the  half-and-half  basis,  ; 
the  tenant’s  share  in  the  proceeds  will  gradually  fall.  { 

Wherever  a tenant  does  some  special  kind  of  farming  requiring  | 
extra  labor,  such  as  running  a milk  route,  or  raising  sugar  beets,  then 
the  case  is  very  clear  that  the  landlord  should  help  pay  for  the  extra  , 
labor.  \ 

Horse  labor.  In  most  parts  of  the  state  with  land-and-stock  share 
leases,  the  tenant  has  undivided  feed  for  his  horses,  but  usually  the 
nnmber  of  horses  to  be  kept  is  limited  in  some  way.  In  a few  counties 
wliere  grain  leases  have  only  recently  passed  away,  the  tenant  has  un-  : 
divided  hay  and  straw,  but  must  feed  his  own  grain.  The  new  way  •: 
is  by  all  means  best  for  dairy  farms.  It  is  expecting  too  much  of  a 
tenant  to  ask  him  to  keep  accurate  measure  of  all  the  hay  and  grain 
he  feeds  his  horses.  Occasionally  a tenant  abuses  the  privilege  of  ■ 
feeding  undivided  grain  by  going  into  the  horse-trading  business, 
bringing  home  worked-out  horses,  feeding  them  up,  and  then  selling  y 
them  at  a profit.  A lease  can  be  so  made  as  to  guard  against  this  if 
necessary.  y 

Colts.  Some  of  the  usual  arrangements  with  respect  to  raising  colts 
are  the  following: 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


25 


1.  Tenant  furnishes  the  brood  mares,  landlord  pays  the  stallion  fee, 
and  the  colts  are  owned  half  and  half. 

2.  Tenant  is  forbidden  to  raise  colts. 

3.  Tenant  must  have  the  landlord’s  consent  to  raise  colts. 

4.  Tenant  may  raise  one  colt  of  his  own  each  year  and  feed  it  un- 
divided feed. 

5.  Tenant  may  have  undivided  feed  for  only  one  colt  of  his  own 
at  a time. 

6.  Tenant  may  raise  colts,  but  must  feed  his  own  hay  and  grain. 

7.  Tenant  owns  brood  mares  and  colts  half-and-half  with  the  landlord, 
exactly  as  the  cattle  are  owned  in  half-and-half  share  leases. 

Good  farm  practice  usually  demands  that  colts  enough  be  raised  to 
take  the  place  of  the  old  horses  as  they  wear  out.  The  tenant  should 
be  allowed  to  farm  according  to  this  practice.  The  landlord,  however, 
is  probably  entitled  to  one-half  of  the  increase  here,  if  he  has  paid  the 
stallion  fee,  and  the  colt  is  kept  till  it  is  ready  for  work.  Nos.  4 and  5 
are  not  in  very  common  use.  When  colts  are  raised  in  considerable 
numbers,  the  No.  7 arrangement  is  the  fairest. 

Tools  and  machinery . Until  recently  the  tenant  has  provided  all  the 
tools  and  machinery  with  half-and-half  share  leases.  Modern  farming, 
however,  is  requiring  a sudden  very  great  increase  in  farm  machinery, 
more  than  most  tenants  can  stand,  and  landlords  who  want  to  keep 
their  farms  abreast  of  the  times  find  it  necssary  either  to  provide  such 
machinery  themselves  or  else  join  with  their  tenants  on  halves.  This 
is  especially  true  with  specialized  types  of  farming,  such  as  supplying 
city  milk.  Lease  II  is  adapted  to  such  farming.  Gasoline  engines, 
cream  separators,  milking  machines,  ensilage-cutters,  and  manure 
spreaders  are  frequently  owned  half-and-half,  one  party  buying  out  the 
other  at  the  end  of  the  lease.  Lease  II  requires  the  tenant  to  provide 
the  gasoline  and  keep  the  extra  machinery  in  repair.  The  landlord 
offsets  this  elsewhere  in  the  lease  by  paying  all  the  taxes  on  jointly  owned 
personal  property. 

Hiring  tenant  labor.  The  tenant  is  the  man  who  can  do  the  land- 
lord’s extra  work  cheapest  and  best,  because  he  is  on  the  job,  has  a 
team  handy  for  hauling,  knows  where  the  materials  are,  and  usually 
has  time  to  spare  for  it  on  rainy  days  and  when  the  land  is  wet.  Be- 
sides, it  will  help  out  the  tenant’s  income  and  make  him  more  contented. 
It  is  always  well  for  the  landlord  to  be  on  hand  to  supervise  such  work. 

Hauling.  The  tenant  always  hauls  the  feed  and  the  produce  on 
land-and-stock  rented  farms.  Where  large  amounts  of  feed  are  bought, 
or  where  milk  is  hauled  a long  distance,  this  is  something  of  a hard- 
ship upon  the  tenant,  and  probably  the  landlord  should  make  some 
allowance  for  it.  Nowadays,  however,  most  milk  and  cream  is  gathered 
by  the  buying  companies.  In  some  cases  the  tenant  is  made  to  pay  the 
hauling  charges,  but  ordinarily  these  are  deducted  before  the  milk 
check  is  divided. 

On  farms  near  cities,  landlords  frequently  pay  their  share  tenants 
for  hauling  manure  from  town,  usually  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  a load. 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


How  Livestock  -is  Divided 

With  land-and-stoek  share  leases,  the  productive  livestock  is  almost 
always  owned  in  common.  A landlord  renting  for  the  first  time  who 
rents  to  a beginning  tenant  usually  sells  him  one-half  of  the  cattle,  hogs, 
and  so  forth,  then  on  the  place.  The  price  is  settled  upon  by  agreement 
or  by  an  appraisal.  If  the  on-coming  tenant  has  a half-share  of  live- 
stock, the  beginning  landlord  may  sell  off  part  of  his  livestock,  at 
auction.  Most  landlords  wull,  of  course,  have  only  a half-share  of  live- 
stock to  match  the  tenant’s  half-share.  When  the  two  shares  are  brought 
together,  each  party  owns  a share  of  the  whole.  Exception  is  made 
to  this  sometimes  when  landlord  or  tenant  have  some  purebred  animals 
which  they  insist  upon  owning  separately.  (See  under  “Improving 
the  herd,”  page  29.) 

Common  ownership  presents  the  serious  difficulty  that  the  two  shares 
of  livestock  may  differ  greatly  in  age  and  quality.  The  tenant  should 
not  be  allowed  to  match  heifers  against  milk  cows,  nor,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  at  j^resent,  to  match  an  unequal  number  of  poor  milkers  against 
the  landlord’s  high  i^roducers.  High-quality  dairy  farming  wull  never 
develop  on  share-rented  farms  till  some  way  of  meeting  this  difficulty 
is  generally  adopted.  At  present,  because  difference  in  quality  of  the 
twm  shares  is  frequently  ignored,  landlords  do  not  think  it  wmrth  wdiile 
to  develop  good  herds.  As  a result,  tenants’  herds  are  .sometimes  better 
than  landlords’  herds.  The  only  methods  now^  used  of  meeting  this 
difficulty  are  those  described  in  the  f ollowung  articles  from  recent  leases : 

“A  board  of  three  apjiraisers,  one  chosen  by  the  landlord,  another 
by  the  tenant,  and  the  third  by  the  first  twm  chosen,  shall  appraise  the 
parts  of  the  dairy  herd  furnished  by  the  landlord  and  tenant,  and  the 
party  wdiose  part  of  the  herd  is  less  valuable  shall  pay  the  other  party 
one-half  of  the  difference  between  the  values  of  the  tw’o  parts  of  the 
herd  ; and  thei'eafter  the  herd  shall  be  owmed  jointly  and  in  common.”  Or : 

“Said  landlord  and  tenant  shall  agree  upon  the  value  of  the  herd 
furnished  by  each,  and  wdiichever  party  has  the  less  valuable  herd 
shall  pay  the  other  party  one-half  of  the  difference  or  buy  sufficient 
cattle  at  a ]irice  agreed  upon  by  both  landlord  and  tenant  to  make  the 
shares  enual;  and  thereafter  the  herd  shall  be  owmed  jointly  and  in 
common.” 

The  number  of  cows.  Lease  II.  states  that  a definite  number  of  milk 
cows  must  be  ke])t.  About  a third  of  the  half-and-half  leases  have 
this  provision.  Another  common  provision  prohibits  the  selling  of 
any  cro))s  from  the  farm,  or  requires  that  enough  stock  be  kept  to 
use  UD  all  the  feed  grown  on  the  farm.  In  many  cases,  nothing 
is  said  about  the  number  of  cattle  and  selling  feed,  but  the  landlord 
must  consent  to  all  sales.  Leases  should  not  be  too  rigid  in  this  matter. 
Cro])s  sometimes  produce  surpluses,  wdiich  the  tenant  cannot  very  welt 
feed  out  wnthout  wmste  during  the  last  year  of  the  lease.  Either  laud- 
loi-d  or  tenant  may  not  be  able  to  buy  the  extra  livestock  needed  to  use 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


27 


up  the  feed.  If  the  landlord  does  not  want  any  feed  sold  from  his 
farm  in  ease  of  a surplus  crop,  he  must  often  be  prei3ared  either  to 
buy  this  surplus  or  to  help  the  tenant  buy  the  extra  livestock. 

Feed.  The  tenant  must,  of  course,  provide  half  of  the  feed  for  the 
productive  livestock  This  means  that  when  he  comes  to  a farm  he  must 
either  bring  with  him  an  amount  equal  to  that  now  on  the  farm  owned 
by  the  landlord,  or  buy  from  the  landlord  if  he  has  enough  for  both,  or 
buy  out  the  departing  tenant.  (See  under  “Quittance  Requirements,’^ 
page  19.)  Purchased  feeds  are,  of  course,  divided  in  the  same  way. 
The  amount  of  feed  to  be  purchased  is  decided  by  mutual  agreement, 
but  is  sometimes  provided  in  the  lease  or  left  to  the  will  of  the  land- 
lord. It  should  be  clearly  recognized  that  buying  large  quantities  of 
feed  puts  a share  tenant  at  a disadvantage,  for  not  only  does  he  have 
the  extra  labor  of  hauling  the  feed  and  feeding  it  to  the  livestock  and 
caring  for  the  extra  livestock,  but  he  also  loses  his  share  of  the  benefit 
from  the  extra  fertilizer  value  of  the  manures  produced  unless  he  re- 
mains on  the  farm  for  at  least  two  more  years,  or  unless  some  form 
of  compensation  for  unexhausted  fertilizer  is  provided  in  the  lease. 

Harvesting  and  threshing  expenses.  Half-and-half  with  such  expenses 
is  the  usual  arrangements  under  land-and-stock  share  leases.  Twine 
is  sometimes  paid  for  altogether  by  the  tenant.  The  machine  work  of 
threshing,  silo-filling  and  shredding  is  almost  always  shared  equally, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  shredding  directly  reduces  the  tenant’s  labor. 
Twine  used  for  binding  corn  also  saves  tenant  labor.  The  coal  and  oil 
for  engines  is  also  shared  equally  in  most  cases.  In  a few  localities 
the  landlord  pays  the  tenant  in  part  for  feeding  the  threshing  crew. 

Breeding  fees.  Bulls  and  boars  are  usualy  owned  in  partnership. 
When  not,  the  landlord  frequently  pays  the  fees  to  offset  the  tenant’s 
extra  labor. 

Management  of  the  farm.  A few  general  restrictions  are  usually  put 
into  share  leases,  and  the  rest  is  left  to  be  determined  from  week  to 
week.  Some  landlords  make  themselves  virtual  managers  in  their 
share  leases  and  determine  the  whole  policy  of  the  farm.  Other  land- 
lords leave  matters  to  be  settled  by  mutual  agreement.  In  such  cases, 
there  needs  to  be  someone  to  say  the  final  word  in  case  of  difference 
of  opinion,  and  this,  of  course,  must  be  the  landlord.  Some  of  the  de- 
tails left  to  be  settled  from  time  to  time,  or  partly  provided  for  in  the 
leases,  are  crops  and  seeding,  buying  and  selling  of  livestock,  feeds  and 
produce  and  the  care  of  livestock. 

Buying  and  selling.  Large  landlords  who  make  renting  farms  on 
shares  a business  usually  do  all  the  buying  and  selling  themselves, 
collect  the  money  and  divide  it  with  the  tenant.  More  of  them  require 
the  tenant  to  obtain  their  consent  before  buying  or  selling  in  any  large 
amount.  In  actual  practice  the  landlord  interferes  very  little  with  the 
tenant’s  plans  in  such  matters,  and  many  tenants  do  most  of  the  selling 
upon  their  own  judgment.  Of  course,  the  landlord  has  a clear  right  to 
be  consulted  in  such  matters,  but  he  can  delegate  the  matter  to  a tenant 
if  he  wishes. 

Care  of  livestock.  Lease  II.  has  a number  of  definite  requirements  as 
to  care  of  the  livestock^  breeding,  etc.  Some  leases  go  farther  than 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


this  and  describe  the  ration  for  the  milk  cows.  Following  are  two 
examples  of  this: 

“Not  less  than  10  tons  of  bran  or  other  concentrates  shall  be  fed 
to  the  cows  in  milk.” 

“In  general,  one  pound  of  ground  grain  or  mill  feed  shall  be  fed 
each  cow  for  each  four  pounds  of  milk  produced.” 

Such  provisions  as  the  foregoing  are  rather  uncommon,  however,  and 
still  in  the  experimental  stage.  Undoubtedly  some  new  developments 
along  this  line  are  in  prospect. 

Division  of  proceeds.  Besides  his  half  of  the  crop,  produce  and  live- 
stock sales,  and  of  the  increase,  the  tenant  is  allowed  a large  part  of 
the  living  for  his  family,  usually  including  rent,  firewood,  milk,  eggs, 
potatoes  and  garden  produce  and  sometimes  butter  and  meat. 

Milk  and  butter.  Following  are  the  usual  arrangements : 

“The  tenant  shall  have  2 (or  3)  quarts  a day  for  family  use.” 

“The  tenant  shall  have  milk  for  family  use,  but  no  butter.” 

“No  butter  shall  be  made  on  the  place,  and  the  proceeds  from  the 
milk  shall  be  divided  equally  at  the  creamery.” 

“The  tenant  shall  have  12  pounds  of  butter  for  family  use  each 
month  before  the  milk  check  is  divided.” 

“The  tenant  shall  have  free  feed  and  pasture  for  one  cow  of  his  own.” 

The  old  arrangement  was  either  the  last  one,  for  the  tenant  to  have 
a family  cow  and  make  butter,  or  for  the  tenant  to  save  out  milk  and 
make  his  own  butter  for  family  use.  The  practice  still  persists  in 
many  counties  in  central  and  western  Wisconsin.  In  certain  other 
counties,  such  as  Dodge  and  Green  Lake,  the  tenant  has  his  butter  out 
ofi  the  milk  checks.  In  southern  Wisconsin,  however,  the  tenant  pays 
for  his  butter.  The  tenant  always  has  free  milk. 

Garden  and  orchard.  All  leases  specify  that  the  tenant  shall  have 
a free  garden  plot  of  a quarter  or  half  an  acre,  and  many  of  these 
add,  “in  return  for  working  the  road  taxes.”  The  exchange  is  no 
longer  an  even  one,  even  allowing  for  the  time  spent  in  working  the 
garden,  but  there  is  no  harm  in  it,  because  other  changes  have  favored 
the  tenant.  However,  the  garden  ought  to  be  larger  than  it  usually  is, 
and  it  ought  to  contain  more  fruit  trees  and  small  fruit,  even  if  the 
landlord  has  to  provide  them.  And  no  landlord  can  afford  to  ask  a 
tenant  to  bother  with  dividing  small  fruit  with  him,  unless  he  wants  to 
go  out  and  gather  his  own  share.  As  for  potatoes,  some  landlords  pur- 
])osely  keep  the  garden  plot  small  so  that  the  tenant  will  have  to  grow 
his  family  supply  of  potatoes  elsewhere  and  thus  give  him  a half  of 
them.  Others  ask  only  that  the  proceeds  be  divided  in  case  potatoes 
are  sold. 

roultrif  and  eggs.  About  half  the  time  the  poultry  is  owned  half 
and  half,  and  the  tenant  is  exjiected  either  to  count  the  eggs  when  they 
are  gathered,  and  the  young  birds  when  mature,  and  deliver  one-half 
to  the  landlord,  or  else  the  tenant  is  allowed  eggs  and  poultry  for 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


29 


family  use  before  the  division  is  made.  Neither  plan  works  very  well. 
The  poultry  is  usually  looked  after  by  the  women,  and  they  have  a feel- 
ing that  they  earn  all  they  get  from  it.  As  a result,  some  landlords 
are  now  asking  for  only  one-third  of  the  poultry  receipts. 

The  other  plan  in  common  use  is  to  let  the  tenant  keep  a limited 
number  of  hens,  usually  50,  75  or  100,  and  give  him  all  the  proceeds. 
The  only  difficulty  that  has  arisen  is  that  the  flock  is  sure  to  exceed  the 
limit  after  a season’s  hatch  and  the  tenant  does  not  always  sell  his 
surplus  when  he  should.  Accordingly,  a date  is  sometimes  set  when 
the  flock  must  be  reduced  to  the  set  number. 

A few  landlords  are  trying  out  a third  plan,  which  requires  the  tenant 
to  deliver  to  the  landlord  a deflnite  number  of  eggs,  say  four  or  five 
dozen,  for  each  hen  kept,  or  to  pay  the  landlord  a definite  sum,  say  $1, 
for  every  hen  kept. 

Most  landlords  do  not  want  their  tenants  to  go  into  the  poultry  busi- 
ness wholesale;  but  they  do  want  them  to  keep  enough  to  clean  up  the 
usual  wastage  of  grain  and  feed  around  a farm.  This  is  certainly  in 
the  interests  of  good  farming.  Still,  none  of  them  can  afford  to  quarrel 
with  a good  tenant  over  such  a detail  as  poultry  receipts. 

When  the  Lease  Ends 

Division  at  end  of  lease.  There  are  about  four  ways  of  dividing 
the  livestock  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 

1.  The  first  of  these  is  described  in  the  first  paragraph  of  Sec.  VI.  in 
Lease  II.  The  others  are  as  follows: 

2.  “The  landlord  and  tenant  shall  draw  cuts  to  see  which  shall  choose 
first  and  they  shall  then  choose  alternately  until  all  the  cattle  are  chosen. 
The  brood  sows  and  pigs  shall  be  divided  in  the  same  manner.  If 
there  is  an  odd  number  of  any  kind  of  livestock,  the  animal  to  be 
chosen  shall  be  sold  and  the  proceeds  divided  between  the  two  parties.” 

3.  Landlord  or  tenant  buys  the  other  party  out  at  a price  settled  by 
bargaining,  or  by  appraisal  in  case  of  disagreement. 

4.  The  livestock  is  sold  at  auction  and  the  proceeds  are  divided. 
(This  method  is  seldom  used  except  as  a last  resort.) 

Landlords  sometimes  complain  that  with  Nos.  1 and  2 the  tenants 
often  get  the  better  of  them  because  they  know  the  cattle  better.  The 
option  to  buy  at  an  appraisal  price,  reserved  in  No.  3,  is  not  favored 
by  many  tenants,  because  it  may  give  the  landlord  a chance  to  buy 
away  from  them  the  herd  of  cattle  which  they  are  trying  to  breed  up 
preparatory  to  renting  for  cash  or  to  buying  a farm. 

Improving  the  herd.  It  will  be  apparent  that  even  the  plan  of 
equalizing  the  value  of  the  two  herds  described  above  (page  26)  when 
combined  with  the  usual  plans  for  division  at  the  end  of  the  lease,  does 
not  encourage  the  building  up  of  good  herds  on  rented  farms.  One 
of  the  questions  ambitious  landlords  in  the  dairy  sections  are  forever 
asking  is,  “How  can  I build  up  a good  herd  if  I have  to  divide  it  with 
every  tenant  who  leaves  my  farm?”  Each  tenant  who  comes  to  a farm 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


ordinarily  brings  a fresh  lot  of  grades  and  scrubs,  and  when  he  goes, 
according  to  the  nsnal  terms  of  the  leases,  he  takes  his  share  not  only 
of  the  progeny  of  the  landlord’s  better  animals,  but  also  of  the  better 
animals  themselves.  Some  of  these  landlords  want  to  keep  purebred 
cattle  on  their  farms.  Others  are  interested  only  in  developing  high- 
producing  herds. 

Following  are  a few  plans  that  are  being  tried  now  and  then  to 
overcome  the  foregoing  difficulties : 

First  plan : The  herd  is  owned  in  common  and  divided  in  the  usual 

iiranner  at  the  end  of  the  lease,  but  the  landlord  carefullj^  selects  a 
tenant  who  has  a herd  which  he  thinks  will  combine  with  his  to  ad- 
vantage. The  difficulty  with  this  plan  is  of  course  that  a landlord  who 
has  a well  bred  herd  finds  it  hard  to  procure  a tenant  who  can  match  it. 

Second  plan : The  landlord  sells  a half  share  in  his  herd  to  the 

tenant  and  thereafter  the  herd  is  owned  in  common.  In  some  cases  the 
lease  allows  the  landlord  to  buy  back  the  tenant’s  share  of  the  herd  ac 
the  end  of  the  lease  at  a price  determined  by  appraisal.  However, 
few  tenants  favor  such  an  arrangement.  The  chance  to  build  up  a good 
herd  on  the  foundation  of  the  landlord’s  herd  is  one  of  the  things  that 
makes  them  acept  the  terms  of  the  usual  share  contract;  and  if  this 
chance  is  taken  away  many  of  them  will  not  be  share  tenants.  In 
other  cases  the  herd  is  divided  in  the  usual  way  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 
This  means  that  the  tenant  gets  part  of  the  landlord’s  original  herd  as 
well  as  part  of  the  young  stock.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  landlord, 
it  is  equivalent  to  selling  off  half  his  herd,  quality  as  well  as  quantity, 
every  three  oi‘  four  years.  It  takes  a long  time  to  build  up  a herd  at 
this  rate. 

Third  plan;  Landlord  and  tenant  own  their  herds  separately,  and 
the  original  stock,  or  so  much  of  it  as  is  still  left,  is  retained  by  each 
party  at  the  end  of  the  lease.  This  makes  it  possible  for  the  landlord 
to  have  purebred  or  high-grade  cattle,  although  the  tenant  does  not. 
In  some  cases  the  difference  in  the  value  between  the  two  herds  is  ad- 
justed and  the  increase  of  young  stock  is  divided  half  and  half  in  the 
usual  way.  Under  such  an  arrangement,  the  two  parties  share  on 
even  terms,  and  the  tenant  gets  his  pay  for  the  extra  care  required  by 
purebreds  in  the  extra  value  of  his  half  of  the  increase.  In  other 
cases,  the  difference  in  value  is  not  adjusted,  l)ut  the  landlord  has  first 
choice  of  his  half  of  the  increase  of  purebred  heifers  at  a certain  age. 
K’eceipts  from  sales  of  bull  calves  are  divided  equally.  Under  still  an- 
other arrangement  the  landlord  agrees  to  buy  all  the  increase  of  young 
stock  of  the  tenant  at  a certain  age,  or  at  time  of  division  of  the  herd, 
at  a ])ilce  agi-eed  upon  in  advance,  the  price  being  enough  more  than 
the  ])rice  for  grades  to  re])ay  the  tenant  for  all  extra  care  required. 
Diffeiences  in  tlie  value  of  the  herds  may  or  may  not  be  equalized  at 
the  start,  the  price  of  the  young  stock  being  adjusted  to  fit  either  ar- 
I’aiigement. 

Fourth  plan  : Where  the  landlord  owns  only  a few  purebred  cattle, 

he  retains  se))arate  title  to  these,  pays  for  half  their  feed,  and  receives 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


31 


half  of  the  milk  receipts  from  them  and  half  of  the  heifers  at  a certain 
age.  First  choice  may  be  i3rovided  if  desired.  The  rest  of  the  herd 
is  handled  in  the  usual  way. 

All  plans  providing’  for  separate  ownership  of  cattle  are  open  to  the 
objection  that  if  accident  or  sickness  happens  to  one  of  the  landlord’s 
cows,  suspicion  is  likely  to  arise  that  the  tenant  has  not  given  it  proper 
care,  or  has  not  fed  it  properly,  and  this  suspicion  is  as  bad  for  the 
landlord  as  it  is  for  the  tenant.  For  this  reason,  separate  ownership 
has  given  place  to  ownership  in  common.  Xevertheless,  some  of  the 
foregoing  plans  may  well  be  worth  a trial. 

Arbitration.  There  ought  always  to  be  some  way  provided  in  the 
lease  for  tenant  and  landlord  to  settle  their  differences  without  going 
to  law.  Lease  IT.  provides  for  arbitration  by  a board  of  three.  This 
plan  is  being  used  more  and  more  and  is  working  well.  Occasionally 
a lease  nominates  a single  person,  or  the  College  of  Agriculture,  to  act 
as  arbitrator  and  settle  differences. 

Lease  III. — Laxd-axd-Stock  Cash  Lease 

On  an  occasional  farm  in  the  central  and  northern  part  of  the  state, 
livestock,  or  livestock  and  machinery,  are  rented  for  cash  with  the 
farm.  This  happens  when  retired  farmers  leave  their  equipment  on 
the  farm  for  their  sons,  or  for  a former  hired  man,  instead  of  selling 
them  at  auction.  The  best  examples  of  leases  of  this  kind  were  found 
in  Calumet,  Clark,  Jackson  and  Buffalo  counties.  The  personal  prop- 
erty left  on  the  farm  is  inventoried  carefully  at  the  beginnmg  of  the 
lease,  and  the  tenant  is  required  to  return  it  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 

Following  are  the  usual  provisions  covering’  the  points  of  difference 
with  ordinary  cash  leases: 

“Said  landlord  hereby  leases  to  said  tenant  his  farm  in  

described  as  follows : together  with  the  personal  property 

named  in  the  accompanying  inventorjq  which  is  hereby  made  a part 
of  this  lease.” 

“Said  tenant  hereby  agrees  to  feed  and  properly  care  for  the  eight 
milk  cows  named  in  said  inventory,  to  call  in  a veterinarian  at  once  in 
case  any  of  them  are  sick,  and  to  notify  said  landlord  at  the  same 
time,  to  pay  all  veterinai’y  and  breeding  fees,  and  to  return  the  same 
cows  at  the  end  of  the  lease,  except  such  as  have  died,  or  have  been 
sold  by  mutual  agreement,  in  as  good  condition  as  the  same  are  now  in. 
The  increase  and  products  from  said  cows  shall  belong  wholly  to  said 
tenant,  as  also  the  increase  and  products  from  any  other  livestock  said 
tenant  shall  keep  on  said  farm.” 

“Said  tenant  shall  leave  on  the  farm  at  the  end  of  the  lease  the  same 
amounts  of  the  same  kinds  of  feed  as  are  found  on  the  place  at  the 
beginning,  the  same  being  described  in  the  attached  inventory. 

If  machinery  is  furnished,  it  is  provided  for  as  follows: 

“Said  tenant  shall  have  the  use  of  all  the  tools  and  machinery  now  on 
said  premises,  and  shall  house  and  properly  care  for  the  same,  and 


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Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


repair  them  in  case  of  breakage,  and  leave  them  upon  said  farm  at  the 
end  of  the  lease  in  as  good  condition  as  the  same  now  is,  reasonable 
wear  and  use  thereof  only  excepted.” 

In  some  cases,  the  tenant  has  only  one-half  the  increase  from  the 
cattle.  This  enables  the  landlord  to  maintain  his  herd  from  year  to 
year.  In  a few  other  cases,  the  tenant  gets  none  of  the  increase, 
but  still  is  expected  to  take  care  of  the  calves  and  young  stock.  The 
rent  is  of  course  adjusted  accordingly.  Feed  must  be  left  so  that  the 
landlord  or  the  new  tenant  will  have  something  for  the  cattle  at  the 
end  of  the  lease. 

The  landlord  seldom  replaces  machinery  that  wears  out.  Thus  the 
providing  of  machinery  is  only  a temporary  arrangement  on  any  farm. 
In  the  few  cases  where  horses  are  furnished,  the  tenant  pays  horse- 
shoeing and  veterinary  bills. 

This  way  of  renting  land  is  not  to  be  encouraged.  It  too  frequently 
results  in  trouble  between  landlord  over  the  care  of  tlie  livestock  or 
the  machinery,  or  over  settling  up  the  inventoiy  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 

Lease  IV. — Landlord’s  Cattle  Dairy  Lease 

Under  Lease  IV.  in  its  regular  form,  the  landlord  furnishes  the 
cattle  and  usually  the  hogs,  sheep,  and  chickens,  and  the  proceeds  and 
increase  are  divided  as  in  Lease  II.  In  some  counties,  however,  the 
tenant  owns  all  the  poultry  and  gets  all  the  poultry  receipts,  and  the 
landlord  may  in  addition  furnish  the  grass  and  clover  seed  and  even 
the  seed  for  field  crops. 

Figure  3 shows  where  this  form  of  lease  is  found.  It  is  giving 
ground  to  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease  in  the  south,  and  taking  the 
place  of  grain  leases  in  central  and  northern  Wisconsin.  It  is  ordi- 
narily used  under  the  following  three  circumstances : 

1.  Where  land  is  not  very  valuable  and  tenants  are  scarce  and  do 

not  have  the  means  to  furnish  half  of  the  cattle. 

2.  Where  landlords  are  renting  to  members  of  the  family. 

3.  Where  landlords  want  to  preserve  purebred  or  high-producing 

herds  intact. 

The  first  circumstance  accounts  for  its  existence  in  northern  and 
central  Wisconsin;  the  other  two  for  its  existence  in  southern  Wis- 
consin. This  t3^pe  of  lease  is  also  used  in  the  Elgin  dairy  district  of 
Illinois,  partly  because  landlords  need  to  maintain  high-producing  herds 
and  partly  because  the  intensive  daiiying  practiced  requires  the  tenants 
to  furnish  a great  deal  of  labor  for  each  acre  and  to  buy  a gTeat  deal 
of  feed. 

In  the  portions  of  Wisconsin  where  this  lease  is  made,  not  only  is 
tlie  land  less  valuable  and  less  productive,  but  it  is  more  mixed  in 
(juality.  The  land  which  the  landlord  matches  against  the  tenant’s  labor 
is  a smaller  share;  the  extra  cattle  which  he  provides  in  part  makes 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


33 


up  the  difference.  Moreover,  tenants  are  scarce  and  without  means  to 
buy  livestock,  for  those  who  have  means  are  able  to  start  farming  for 
themselves  on  the  cheaper  farms  that  abound  everywhere.  The  dairy- 
ing practiced  in  these  sections  is  still  new,  and  hence  the  leases  are 
often  crude  and  indefinite  as  to  livestock  details.  And  where  this  lease 
is  found  on  family  farms,  the  division  of  proceeds  is  not  likely  to  be  a 
very  important  matter. 

Provisions  for  Owning  Livestock 

In  all  cases,  the  proceeds  from  the  livestock  and  the  increase  are 
divided  half  and  half,  losses  from  accident  or  sickness  due  to  the  neg- 
lect of  the  tenant  are  replaced  out  of  the  tenant’s  share  of  the  in- 
crease, and  other  losses  are  replaced  out  of  undivided  increase.  The 
exact  details  of  landlords’  cattle  leases,  however,  vary  greatly  as  to 
what  the  landlord  furnishes  and  how  the  increase  is  divided.  The 
following  are  five  general  plans  which  are  in  use ; 

1.  The  landlord  furnishes  the  parent  stock  only,  and  the  tenant  re- 
turns the  identical  animals  in  the  same  condition  or  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  the  same  condition  as  when  he  received  them. 

According  to  this  plan,  the  tenant  gets  half  the  appreciation  and  the 
landlord  stands  all  the  depreciation  of  the  parent  stock  from  age. 

2.  The  landlord  furnishes  both  parent  stock  and  young  stock  and 
the  tenant  returns  the  same  animals  as  in  No.  1 (above). 

In  this  case,  the  tenant  gets  half  the  increase  in  the  new-born  animals, 
but  the  landlord  has  the  appreciation  on  his  young  stock  to  offset  the 
depreciation  of  his  parent  stock. 

3.  The  landlord  furnishes  only  parent  stock  and  the  tenant  replaces 
out  of  the  herd  and  undivided  increase  an  e-qual  number  of  cows  of  the 
same  general  age,  weight  and  quality.  Any  stock  sold  is  divided  half 
and  half. 

In  this  case  the  depreciation  of  the  parent  stock  is  borne  half  and 
half. 

4.  The  landlord  furnishes  both  young  and  old  stock  and  the  tenant 
replaces  out  of  the  herd  and  undivided  increase  an  equal  number  of 
animals  of  the  same  general  age,  weight  and  quality.  Any  stock  sold 
is  divided  equally. 

Both  the  appreciation  of  the  young  stock  and  the  depreciation  of 
the  parent  stock  are  shared  in  this  case. 

5.  In  a few  cases,  the  tenant  replaces  any  of  the  landlord’s  stock 
that  is  sold  out  of  his  half  of  the  increase,  the  sales  receipts  being 

’ shared  equally.  The  landlord’s  herd  is  thus  kept  at  a constant  number. 

The  tenant  in  this  case  stands  all  the  depreciation  on  the  parent 
stock. 

It  will  be  seen  that  plans  No.  2 and  5 are  least  favorable  to  the 
tenant.  In  many  cases,  a tenant  would  do  better  furnishing  half  the 
cattle  than  under  such  an  arrangement. 


34  Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 

The  increase  of  livestock  under  all  of  the  foregoing  plans  is  never 
divided  till  the  end  of  tlie  lease.  If  the  tenant  remains  on  a fann  sev- 
eral years,  unless  cattle  are  constantly  sold,  he  soon  owns  a considerable 
part  of  the  producing  herd.  When  he  leaves  the  farm,  he  takes  his  in- 
crease to  his  next  farm.  If  he  has  been  farming  under  plans  No.  1 or 
2,  he  sometimes  leaves  the  landlord  a very  small  herd.  If  his  neAv 
farm  is  a rented  one,  then  he  has  part  of  a herd  to  put  in  with  his 
new  landlord’s  herd.  Hence  it  is  that  leases  of  this  kind  are  often  ir- 
regular, tenant  and  landlord  each  furnishing  whatever  cattle  they 
happen  to  own.  The  livestock  furnished  by  the  landlord  is  almost 
always  inventoried,  the  cows  by  name,  age,  Aveight  and  description,  and 
the  young  stock  and  sows  by  age  and  weight. 

Hogs.  The  tenant  owns  half  of  the  brood  sows  in  about  half  the 
cases  under  this  lease. 

Taxes.  In  most  cases  the  personal  property  taxes  are  shared  equally ; 
otherwise  each  party  pays  acccording  to  his  interest,  or  the  tenant 
pays  all. 

Feed.  The  departing  tenant  either  leaves  one-half  the  crop  still  un- 
fed, or  a definite  quantity  of  feed.  The  landlord  always  wants  to  make 
sure  there  will  be  enough  feed  left  to  carry  his  livestock  through  to 
grass. 

Horses  and  machinery.  The  landlord’s  cattle  dairy  lease  is  more 
likely  to  be  irregular  in  the  matter  of  horses  and  machinery  than  in 
any  other  particular.  Either  one  or  both  of  these  are  furnished  in  a 
quarter  or  a third  of  the  leases.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  retiring 
farmers  who  are  leaving  their  cattle  on  the  farm  do  not  like  to  have 
an  auction  just  to  sell  their  horses  and  machinery.  As  Avith  land-and- 
stock  cash  leases,  they  seldom  replace  horses  and  machinery  as  they 
Avear  out,  the  arrangement  is  only  a temporary  one.  (See  Lease  III. 
for  further  details.) 

Purebred  cattle.  Purebred  cattle  are  easier  to  handle  Avith  Lease  IV. 
than  \\dth  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease,  because  all  that  needs  to  be 
divided  is  the  increase.  The  landlord  is  thus  able  to  keep  his  original 
herd  intact,  and  sloAvly  build  it  up  by  adding  one-half  of  the  increase 
each  year. 

Letting  purebred  cattle  out  on  shares.  In  recent  years  OAvners  of 
purebred  cattle  liaA’e  begun  to  let  them  out  on  shares  to  farmers  near 
by.  The  tenant  furnishes  the  feed,  gets  the  milk  and  half  of  the  young- 
stock,  the  owner  sometimes  having  first  choice  of  the  young  stock. 

Disadvantages  of  Lease  IV.  Landlords  usually  do  not  like  furnish- 
ing cattle  for  the  tenants.  They  complain  that  the  cattle  are  not  Avell 
handled  and  the  herd  soon  runs  doAvn.  Also,  none  of  the  arrangements 
for  i-e])lacing  the  herd  out  of  the  increase  Avorks  very  accurately  and 
definitely.  For  these  tAvo  reasons,  trouble  frequently  arises  betAveen 
landlord  and  tenant.  The  half-and-half-dairy  lease  is  a better  lease, 
because,  Avith  the  cattle  OAvned  in  common,  each  has  an  equal  interest 
in  the  Avelfare  of  the  herd. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


35 


Leass  V. — The  One-half-all-stock  Lease. 

Under  tliis  lease  the  landlord  and  tenant  each  furnish  half  of  all 
the  ])ersonal  property  on  the  farm.  Leases  of  this  kind  are  probably 
found  in  nearly  every  county  of  the  state,  but  especially  in  sections 
where  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease  is  crowding  out  the  landlord’s 
cattle  lease.  The  arrangement  usually  results  when  a retiring  farmer 
sells  a half  of  his  farm  equipment  outright  to  a tenant.  At  the  end 
of  the  lease,  he  either  sells  his  remaining  half  of  the  machinery  and 
horses  to  the  departing  tenant,  or  he  buys  the  tenant  out.  Sometimes 
the  tenant  owns  all  the  horses.  The  arrangement  lasts  long  enough 
in  some  sections,  in  Crawford  and  Vernon  Counties,  for  example, 
so  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  regular  leasing  systems. 

Lease  VI. — The  One-thiru  Stock  Lease. 

Under  this  lease,  the  landlord  furnishes  all  the  livestock  and  ma- 
chinery, and  the  tenant  furnishes  the  labor  and  gets  one-third  of  the 
proceeds.  The  expenses  are  usually  divided  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  proceeds.  Leases  of  this  kind  are  found  here  and  thei’e  all  over 
the  state,  but  especially  in  the  central  and  northern  counties.  This 
is  the  place  where  would-be  landlords  with  farms  and  equipment  on 
their  hands  and  would-be  tenants  with  no  capital  are  most  likely  to 
come  together.  The  tenant  does  not  always  make  laborer’s  wages. 
The  plan  would  work  better  on  a large  well-stocked  farm  in  southern 
Wisconsin,  but  here  most  tenants  are  able  to  furnish  half  of  the 
livestock  and  get  half  the  returns. 

Grain-renting  Systems. 

Under  a given  lease,  all  that  is  divided  is  the  crops.  The  small 
grain  is  divided  at  the  threshing  machine,  the  hay  in  the  stack  or 
mow,  and  the  corn  in  the  shock  or  in  the  crib.  If  any  cows  are  kept, 
that  is  the  tenant’s  business.  He  feeds  them  out  of  his  share  of  the 
grain  and  gets  all  the  proceeds. 

Grain  renting  used  to  be  the  practice  all  over  the  state,  and  traces 
of  it  are  still  found  in  nearly  every  county.  It  began  to  pass  away 
when  dairying  began  to  supplant  wheat-growing.  Even  in  a county 
as  far  south  as  Dodge,  and  on  some  regular  stock  farms,  part  of  the 
grain  is  still  sometimes  divided  at  the  machine.  It  is,  of  course, 
the  usual  method  of  dividing  the  proceeds  from  the  small  additional 
pieces  of  land  that  are  everywhere  rented  on  shares  by  neighboring 
fa  rmers.  Figni-e  3 shows  where  most  of  the  grain  renting  is  still  found. 

Tliere  are  two  types  of  grain  leases  in  use  in  Wisconsin : the  One- 
third  Grain  Tiease  and  the  One-half  Grain  Lease. 


36 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Lease  VII. — The  One-third  Grain  Lease. 

This  has  recently  become  the  commoner  of  the  two  grain  leases. 
The  landlord  furnishes  nothing  but  the  farm,  sometimes  with  buildings 
and  a garden  and  sometimes  not.  The  tenant  furnishes  horses,  ma- 
chinery, labor,  seed  and  twine,  pays  the  threshing  bill,  and  hauls  the 
grain  to  market.  It  is  used  everywhere  by  landlords  who  live  a long 
way  from  their  land  or  do  not  want  to  bother  with  looking  after  it. 
In  central  and  northern  Wisconsin  there  is  a good  deal  of  land  which 
has  thus  been  half  abandoned  by  its  owners.  The  rent  they  get  is 
one-third  of  the  small  grain.  The  hay  is  usually  divided  equally,  but 
the  landlord  has  to  pay  for  half  the  baling.  Sometimes  the  corn  is 
divided  by  halves  in  the  field.  If  any  grass  or  clover  seed  is  sown, 
the  landlord  has  to  furnish  it. 

Potatoes.  Probably  over  half  the  potatoes  that  are  grown  on 
shares  in  Wisconsin  are  grown  according  to  the  one-third  lease.  The 
tenant  furnishes  labor,  tools,  seed,  and  paris  green,  and  puts  the  land- 
lord’s share  of  the  potatoes  in  bags,  boxes,  or  pits  as  the  landlord 
directs,  or  he  hauls  them  to  market  or  to  a warehouse  at  so  much  a 
load,  say  $1,  or  so  much  a bushel  say  from  2 to  5 cents.  If  hauled 
to  a warehouse,  the  potatoes  are  divided  by  weight  when  sold. 


! 

3 

1 

I 


Lease  VIII. — The  One-half  Grain  Lease. 


This  lease  is  like  Lease  VII.  except  that  the  landlord  furnishes  half  - 
the  seed,  usually  half  the  twine,  pays  for  half  the  threshing  bill,  and 
gets  one  half  the  grain  and  hay.  This  lease  is  found  mostly  in  the  old 
grain-growing  counties  where  grain-growing  still  persists,  namely, 
Jackson,  Eau  Claire,  Dunn,  Buffalo,  Pepin,  Pierce  and  St.  Croix 
Counties;  but  is  also  frequently  found  both  north  and  south  in  such 
counties  as  Columbus,  Sauk,  Vernon,  Burnett,  Barron,  Rusk  and 
Marinette.  Many  potatoes  are  grown  under  this  lease  in  Waupaca 
and  Waushara  Counties  and  farther  north.  Each  paj^s  for  half  the 
paris  green.  The  tenant  still  gets  his  pay  for  hauling. 

Tobacco.  A large  amount  of  tobacco  is  grown  under  Lease  VIII, 
especially  in  Dane,  Vernon,  Crawford  and  Rock  Counties.  The  land- 
lord in  this  ease,  however,  furnishes  nearly  everything — land,  sheds, 
tools  and  machineiy,  horses,  fertilizer.  The  tenant  performs  all  the 
labor  from  the  planting  of  the  seed  to  the  deliveiy  of  the  crop  to 
market.  Each  pays  half  of  the  expenses  for  twine,  wrapping  paper, 
seed,  and  so  forth.  The  proceeds  are  shared  equally.  The  tenant 
frequently  lives  with  the  landlord  during  the  tobacco  season,  paying 
board  at  a nominal  rate  and  working  for  the  landlord  at  a nominal 
wage.  In  Vernon  County,  for  example,  tenants  were  paying  $5  an 
acre,  or  $35  for  the  season,  for  board  for  themselves  and  all  the  extra 
help  hired  at  harvesting,  but  they  were  working  for  the  landlord  at 
haying  and  grain  harvesting  at  $1  a day  (1916).  If  the  tenant  is 
married,  he  may  have  free  house  rent  and  garden  for  his  family. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


37 


Mixed  Grain-and-dairy  Renting. 

As  one  would  expect,  where  grain  fanning  is  gradually  giving 
place  to  dairy  farming,  grain  and  dairy  leases  shade  into  each  other 
gradually.  However,  two  general  types  of  mixed  leases  can  be  pointed 
out,  the  “Share-cash  Lease”  and  what  is  here  called  the  “Grain- 
and-dairy  Lease.” 


Lease  IX. — The  Share-Cash  Lease. 

The  1910  census  counted  658  share-cash  leases  in  AYisconsin,  but 
most  of  these  are  not  the  genuine  sort.  The  time  share-cash  lease  is 
found  best  in  Pierce  and  St.  Croix  Counties.  Grain  is  divided  either 
one-half  or  one-third,  usually  the  former,  and  the  tenant  owns  all  the 
cattle,  pays  cash  rent  for  the  pasture,  feeds  his  share  of  the  grain, 
and  has  all  the  proceeds.  The  pasture  rents  used  to  be  low,  but  they  are 
now  $3  to  $4  an  acre,  or  $5  to  $8  a head  in  some  cases.  In  many 
cases  the  tenants  also  pay  cash  rent  for  corn  land  now.  Some  of  these 
farms  have  silos. 

Lease  X. — The  Grain-and-dairy  Lease. 

In  Eau  Claire  County,  for  example,  are  many  leases  which  are  made 
out  almost  exactly  like  either  half-and-half  or  landlord’s  cattle  dairy 
leases.  The  landlord  furnishes  either  half  or  all  of  the  cattle,  and  the 
milk  receipts  are  divided  half  and  half.  Upon  examining  the  farm 
receipts,  however,  one  discovers  the  real  nature  of  the  ease.  There 
may  be  only  6 milk  cows  on  a 200-acre  farm.  The  big  income  is  from 
the  gTain,  which  is  still  divided  at  the  machine. 

This  kind  of  tenant  farming  in  varying  degrees  of  grain-growing 
and  dairying  prevails  all 'the  way  from  Burnett  to  Crawford  Counties 
on  the  west,  and  from  Waupaca  to  Green  Lake  on  the  east.  It  is 
characteristic  of  Waupaca  County,  where  potatoes  and  dairying  are 
mixed.  Much  tobacco  is  grown  in  Dane  and  Crawford  Counties  on 
farms  where  dairying  is  merely  an  adjunct  to  it.  In  fact,  most  of 
the  half-and-half  dairy  leases  from  Sauk  County  northward  involve 
more  grain  than  they  do  dairying. 

Additional  Rented  Land. 

The  1910  census  showed  681,000  acres,  or  one-sixth  of  all  the  rented 
land  in  the  state,  being  farmed  by  neighboring  farmers  as  an  addition 
to  their  farms.  Probably  over  half  of  this  land  is  rented  for  cash. 
Another  part  is  hay  land  cut  on  shares.  The  rest  is  farmed  on  the 
one-half  or  the  one-third  grain  renting  plan.  Needless  to  say,  little 
manure  is  ever  put  on  land  rented  in  this  way.  The  largest  acreages 
of  this  land  are  found  in  central  and  northern  Wisconsin.  It  is  usually 
owned  by  absentee  owners  and  speculators.  Much  of  it  is  in  tracts 


38 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


too  small  to  support  a family.  The  least  that  the  owners  can  rightly 
do  with  it  is  to  rent  it  for  a term  of  years  and  re-quire  the  tenants  to 
haul  a fair  proportion  of  the  farm  manure  onto  the  rented  portions 
of  their  farms. 


The  half-and  half  dairy  lease  is  the  predominating-  type  in  the  south 
central  part  of  the  state;  the  landlord’s  cattle  lease  and  grain  leases  are 
found  principally  in  the  central  and  -western  portions. 


The  Agreement  to  Work  Land. 

All  the  leases  discussed  up  to  this  })oiiit  have  been  actual  farm 
leases.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  form  of  the  share  lease  which  most 
lawyers  use  in  making’  out  contracts  between  landlords  and  tenants 
is  not  a lease  at  all,  but  simply  au  ‘higreement  to  work  laud.”  T nder 
this  ai’i’angemeut  the  landlord  is  tilways  called  “the  party  of  the  first 


Farm  Leasing  Systeais  in  AVisconsin 


39 


part”  and  never  the  “landlord”  or  “lessor,”  and  the  tenant  is  called 
the  “paity  of  the  second  part.”  The  party  of  the  second  part  never 
owns  his  crops  or  his  livestock  till  after  they  are  marketed  or  divided. 
He  is  in  etiect  a hired  man  who,  in  return  for  faithfully  carrying  out 
the  conditions  of  the  agreement,  receives  from  the  party  of  tire  first 
part  a half  or  a third  or  two-thirds  of  the  proceeds  and  the  increase. 
Lawyers  use  this  form  of  lease  because  the  legal  forms  are  printed 
this  way,  but  more  particularly  because  it  is  a simple  way  of  securing 
to  the  owner  his  share  of  the  proceeds.  If  the  tenant  never  owns  the 
crops  until  they  are  marketed,  he  cannot  dispose  of  them  without  the 
owner’s  consent,  and  no  one  else  can  attach  them.  It  is  a way  of 
escaping  the  difficulty  arising  from  the  fact  that  Wisconsin  has  no 
crop-lien  law. 

Folio u'ing  is  the  form  for  an  agreement  to  work  land : 


THIS  AGREEMENT,  Made  the day  of 

19 .... , between of , County, 


State  of  Wisconsin,  party  of  the  first  part,  and 

of  the  Same  County  and  State,  party  of  the  second  part, 
WITNESSETH,  That  whereas  said  party  of  the  first 
part  is  the  owner  of  the  following  described  premises,  to 

wit : the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby 

agrees  to  work  said  premises  for  the  said  party  of  the  first 

part  for  the  term  of year,  dating  from  

19.  . . .,  ipDon  the  following  conditions,  namely, 

THAT  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  furnish 

THAT  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  furnish 

The  two  parties  shall  jointly  furnish  

Said  party  of  the  second  part  further  agrees 

In  return  for  the  full  and  faithful  performance  of  this 
agreement  by  the  party  of  the  second  part,  said  party  of 
the  first  part  hereby  agrees  to  pay  said  party  of  the  first 

part  one-half  the  

The  said  premises  remain  in  the  possession  of  tlie  party 
of  the  first  part,  except  the  buildings  and  garden,  and 
these  are  to  lie  sui'rendered  ijeacefully  and  quietly  at  the 
end  of  the  lease. 

WITNESS  our  hands  the  date  above  written,  etc. 

These  agreements  to  work  land  are  made  to  contain  all  the  usual 
provisions  of  the  several  kinds  of  leases  for  which  they  are  substituted. 
They  also  usually  contain  right  of  entrance  clauses,  breach  of  contract 
clauses  and  all  the  other  legal  provisions  of  share  leases. 

Cash  vs.  Share  Renting 

The  actual  reasons  given  by  landlords  and  tenants  in  different  parts 
of  the  state  for  preferring  cash  or  share  leases  are  as  follows : 


40 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


I.  Reasons  eor  Preferring  Share  Rent. 

A.  Landlord’s  reasons’. 

1.  Cash  rents  are  never  high  enough.  Share  leases  bring  the  landlord 
a larger  profit. 

2.  The  landlord  is  able  under  a share  lease  to  help  manage  the  farm 
and  make  it  yield  a larger  income  for  both  him  and  the  tenant  than  if 
the  tenant  managed  it  alone. 

3.  The  landlord  who  has  a good  herd  of  cattle  is  able  to  leave  all 
or  part  of  it  on  the  farm,  where  it  will  yield  both  landlord  and  tenant 
a larger  profit  than  the  poorer  herd  which  a tenant  will  bring  onto 
the  farm. 

4.  The  landlord  is  able  to  look  after  his  farm  at  share  rent  and 
keep  a tenant  from  “skinning  the  land.”  Cash  tenants  feel  they  have 
a right  to  do  as  they  please  so  long  as  they  pay  the  rent. 

5.  Cash  tenants  do  not  usually  put  as  much  stock  on  farms  as  share 
tenants,  especially  under  half-and-half  dairy  leases,  where  the  land- 
lord furnishes  half  the  cattle. 

6.  Cash  tenants  will  not  bid  as  high  as  they  should  for  land  for 
fear  of  losing  all  on  a poor  crop.  This  is  especially  true  on  farms 
with  light  soils. 

7.  On  poor  years,  tenants  cannot  make  their  rent  and  the  land- 
lord loses  part  of  it;  but  in  good  years  the  tenant  always  gets  the 
full  surplus  of  the  big  crop. 

B.  Tenant’s  reasons: 

1.  Tenants  who  have  not  enough  mtmey  prefer  share  renting  because 
it  requires  less  capital.  In  fact,  many  of  them  could  not  possibly  rent 
any  other  way. 

2.  Tenants  wanting  to  build  up  a herd  of  cattle  like  to  rent  a farm 
with  a good  herd  on  shares  and  get  half  the  increase. 

3.  Landlords  renting  on  shares  are  more  willing  to  make  improve- 
ments because  they  get  a share  in  the  increased  product  right  from 
the  start,  while  at  cash  rent  they  have  to  wait  till  they  can  raise  the  rent. 

4.  Some  tenants,  especially  at  grain  farming,  are  glad  to  share  the 
risk  of  loss  with  the  landlord. 

II  Reasons  for  Preferring  Cash  Leases. 

A.  Landlord’s  reasons : 

1.  Cash  renting  is  less  bother — landlords  do  not  have  to  look  after 
managing  their  farms  and  getting  their  share  of  the  increase  and  of 
the  products  sold. 

2.  Much  trouble  and  friction  is  saved  between  landlord  and  tenant 
over  managing  the  farm  work,  selling  the  farm  produce,  and  dividing 
the  receipts  and  expenses. 

3.  Landlords  do  not  have  to  worry  over  whether  their  tenants  are 
stealing  from  them  or  beating  them  out  of  their  share  of  the  farm 
income. 

4.  Poor  slipshod  tenant  farmers  should  stand  the  consequences  of 
tlieir  own  farming.  The  best  way  to  rent  to  such  a farmer  is  for 
cash  rent. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


41 


5.  In  some  sections  of  the  state,  tenants  lack  ambition.  At  share 
rent  they  are  sure  of  a living  anyway,  since  they  get  a large  part  of 
it  from  the  farm,  and  they  do  not  worry  much  about  the  regular  field 
crops.  As  a result  the  landlord . gets  a poor  return  from  his  land. 

6.  Landlords  know  in  advance  what  they  are  going  to  get. 

7.  Bargains  can  be  made  more  easily  and  more  accurately  in  cash 
terms  than  in  share  terms.  For  example,  in  some  sections  landlords 
cannot  alford  to  give  tenants  half  of  all  the  increase  and  sales  of  produce 
and  yet  the  custom  of  the  neighborhood  makes  it  impossible  for  them 
to  rent  for  any  other  share  than  one-half.  Accordingly  they  rent 
for  cash. 

B.  Tenant’s  reasons : 

1.  Most  tenants  prefer  to  be  their  own  bosses  more  than  they  can 
be  under  share  leases.  As  a class  they  do  not  have  as  high  an  opinion 
of  the  advice  and  direction  of  their  landlord  as  do  the  landlords  them- 
selves, in  many  cases  to  their  own  sorrow  and  loss. 

2.  There  is  too  much  danger  of  friction  and  trouble  with  landlords 
at  share  rents.  Many  landlords  are  suspicious  and  meddlesome.  Share 
leases  offer  so  many  chances  for  trouble. 

3.  Many  tenants  want  to  be  free  to  engage  in  enterprises  entirely 
of  their  own,  such  as  buying  and  selling  livestock,  feeding  sheep  or 
cattle,  growing  sugar  beets,  threshing,  silo-filling,  and  get  all  the 
profits  themselves 

4.  Tenants  frequently  say  that  they  are  “not  going  to  make  slaves 
of  themselves  and  give  their  landlords  half.”  They  forget  that  cash 
rent  has  to  come  out  of  their  labor  also,  and  it  may  be  a bigger  share 
than  the  one-half  in  some  cases.  Their  opinion  has  this  much  founda- 
tion, however,  that  after  they  have  done  a certain  amount  of  work, 
any  extra  effort  they  put  forth  pays  the  landlords  better  than  it  does 
them. 

5.  Tenants  generally  believe  that  cash  leases  pay  better  than  share 
leases  at  present  rents  and  prices. 

6.  Most  tenants  want  to  keep  their  increasing  capital  in  the  fonn 
of  livestock  and  equipment.  When  their  herds  get  large,  they  want  to 
rent  a farm  for  cash  and  furnish  all  the  livestock. 

7.  More  accurate  bargains  can  be  made  in  cash  terms. 

Ci\SH  vs.  Share-rent  Farming. 

No  reliable  figures  are  available  to  show  the  actual  results  of  cash- 
rent  and  share-rent  farming.  The  popular  impression  in  the  share- 
renting  sections  of  the  Rock  River  Valley  is  that  cash-rent  farming 
is  the  poorer,  and  in  the  cash-renting  sections  of  western  Wisconsin, 
that  share-rent  farming  is  the  poorer.  The  only  census  figures  on  this 
point  are  for  the  year  1900.  These  show  that  cash-rented  farms 
average  15  acres  less  a farm,  carry  about  one-fifth  more  buildings, 
livestock  and  hired  labor  an  acre,  and  yield  about  one-fifth  more 
crop  products  an  acre.  Table  I.  compares  cash  and  share-renting  on 
193  farms  in  1914,  1915  and  1916  in  eight  counties  in  Wisconsin,  as 
follows:  Walworth,  Green,  Dane,  Winnebago,  Wood,  Eau  Claire, 


42 


AVisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


St.  Croix  and  BaiTon.  The  share-renting  on  these  farms  was  mostly 
under  half-and-half  dairy  leases.  This  accounts  for  their  lai'ge  eciiiip- 
ment.  Labor  and  current  expenses  are  larger  on  the  cash-rented 
farms,  just  as  they  were  according  to  the  1900  census. 

These  figures  seem  to  indicate  that  share-rent  farmers  make  their 
money  by  farming  extensively,  using  machinery,  and  keeping  ex- 
penses down.  The  usual  explanation  offered  for  this  is  that  shaie 
tenants  figure  that  they  lose  by  hiring  more  than  a certain  amount 
of  labor,  because  they  have  to  pay  all  the  bills  and  the  landlord  gets 
half  the  returns.  In  any  one  neighborhood,  this  dogs  not  seem  to  be 
strikingly  true.  The  supervision  of  landlords,  the  restrictions  of  leases, 
and  the  force  of  custom,  keep  share  tenants  farming  about  like  owners. 
The  theory  works  itself  out,  however,  in  the  choice  of  a lease  for 
farms  of  different  sizes,  and  as  between  types  of  farming  and  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  state. 


Table  I.  Cash-bent  Compared  With  Share-r^nt  Farming 
193  Farms  in  8 comities  of  Wisconsin,  1914-16. 


Cash 

Share 

Acres  a farm 

152 

191 

Value  an  acre 

$91 

$112 

Value  of  farm 

$14,800 

$31,400 

Value  of  equipment 

$2,790 

$4,570 

Value  tenant’s  equipment 

$2,790 

$2, 670 

Value  landlord’s  equipment 

none 

$1,900 

Gross  receipts* 

$1,893 

$2,815 

Expenses  and  depreciaton  

$935 

$1,091 

Net  farm  income 

$958 

$1,724 

Man  labor^ 

$318 

$323 

Expenses  per  $100  farm  vtilue 

$6.30 

$5.10 

Man  labor  per  $100  farm  value 

$2.15 

$1.51 

^ Includes  increase  in  inventory. 

^ In  addition  to  tiie  farmer’s  own  labor. 


Cash  renting  always  predominates  where  farms  are  small,  or  cheap; 
a share  tenant  cannot  make  a living  from  a half-share  of  the  income 
from  a small  or  a cheap  farm.  Cash  renting  also  leads  in  the  small 
truck  farming  districts  near  large  cities,  one  reason  for  this  being  that 
income  from  such  farming  is  hard  to  divide  into  shares.  This  accounts 
for  the  high  jirevalance  of  cash  tenancy  in  northern  and  eastern  AVis- 
consin.  (See  Figure  2.)  Cash  renting  prevails  in  south-western  AVis- 
consin  largely  because  a half-share  of  the  income  from  the  grazing 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


43 


type  of  fanning  practiced  in  these  counties  is  too  good  a lay-out  for 
the  tenant.  The  only  explanation  for  cash-renting  in  La  Crosse  and 
soutliern  Trempealeau  and  Buffalo  Counties  is  the  existence  liere 
of  a German  family  system  under  which  the  parents  help  their  sons 
buy  dairy  herds  so  that  they  can  start  for  themselves  as  cash  tenants. 

in  the  Rock  River  Valley  dairy  section,  fewer  prospective  tenants 
have  the  capital  or  the  family  support  needed  to  start  as  cash  tenants. 
Share  tenancy  is  therefore  the  first  step  up  the  ladder.  Tlie  only 
other  sections  where  share-renting  takes  the  lead  are  the  grain-farming 
counties  of  northwestern  Wisconsin,  such  as  Pierce,  St.  Croix,  Dunn, 
Ran  Claire  and  Jackson  Counties,  and  the  potato  and  the  tobacco 
counties,  such  as  Vernon,  Dane,  Portage,  Waushara,  Waupaca  and 
Marquette  Counties. 

Three  classes  of  landlords  generally  rent  for  cash  or  grain  rent, 
namely,  women,  speculators,  and  absentee  landlords  (landlords  living 
a long  way  from  their  farms).  Such  people  are  not  able  to  look 
after  their  farms,  or  do  not  want  to  bother  with  them.  Retired  farmers, 
on  the  other  hand,  usually  prefer  to  rent  under  land-and-stock  shai’e 
leases,  except  in  southwestern  Wisconsin  and  in  La  Crosse  County. 
Tenants  in  grain-farming  regions  usually  object  to  land-and-stock 
daily  leases  because  it  increases  the  amount  of  labor  which  they  have 
to  furnish. 

Cndoubtedly,  more  trouble  results  between  landlords  and  tenants 
under  land-and-stock  share  leases  than  under  cash  leases.  For  this 
reason,  one-half  of  the  share  leases  examined  in  Dane,  Jefferson,  Rock 
and  Walworth  Counties  were  year-to-year  leases,  and  only  one-sixth 
were  five-year  leases,  whereas  only  30  per  cent  of  the  cash  leases  were 
for  one  year,  and  31  per  cent  were  for  five  years. 

Cash-rent  farming  can  undoulitedly  be  as  successful  as  share-rent 
farming,  if  the  cash-renting  landlords  will  put  proper  restrictions  in 
their  leases,  choose  their  tenants  carefully,  and  then  give  them  proper 
supervision.  In  those  sections  of  Wisconsin  where  cash-renting  results 
in  poor  agriculture,  it  is  largely  because  the  landlords  are  poor  land- 
lords. Where  .share-i-enting  is  resulting  in  poor  agriculture,  very 
often  it  is  because  of  jioor  tenants — all  the  good  farmers  can  easily 
obtain  farms  of  their  own. 

Division  of  Farm  Income  Undj^r  Cash  Rent. 

Talile  II.  shows  the  landlord’s  returns  from  two  groups  of  farms, 
1185  and  45  resepctively,  recently  rented  for  cash  rent  in  Wisconsin. 
Tlie  data  from  the  1185  farms  were  obtained  from  letters  written  in 
July,  1917,  to  landlords  and  tenants  in  all  the  counties  in  the  state. 
The  data  as  to  the  45  farms  were  obtained  from  surveys  of  these  farms 
made  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  1914,  1915  and  1916  in  foui*  counties,  namely,  Dane,  Walworth, 
Barron  and  St.  Croix. 


44 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


The  results  in  the  two  columns  are  quite  similar. 

Table  II.  Returns  to  Landlords  from  Cash  Rent  in  Wisconsin 

1914-1917 


Acres  a farm 

Value  an  acre 

Value  of  real  estate  on  farm 

Rent  per  farm 

Rent  per  acre.... 

Total  expenses  of  landlord 

Taxes  and  insurance 

Upkeep  of  real  estate 

Grass  and  clover  seed 

Balance  in  favor  of  landlord 

Depreciation  on  farm  buildings 

Landlord’s  net  income 

Per  cent  of  real  estate  value— rent 

“ —total  expenses 


—taxes  and  insurance  . . 
—upkeep  of  real  estate  . 

—seeds 

—landlord’s  balance 

—depreciation 

— landloid’s  net  income 


L85  Farms 

45  Farms 

145 

152 

S99 

$97 

$14,375 

$14,800 

$565 

$570 

$3.89 

$3.75 

$142 

$137 

$109 

$111 

$26 

$22 

$7 

$4 

$423 

$409 

$72 

$65 

$351 

368 

3.94 

3.85 

.99 

.93 

.76 

.75 

.18 

.15 

.05 

.03 

2.95 

2.92 

.50 

.44 

2.45 

2.48 

The  figures  show  that  cash  rents  average  slightly  less  than  4 per 
cent  of  the  market  value  of  the  farm.  The  cash  actually  paid  out 
by  the  landlord  in  taxes,  insurance,  repairs  of  buildings  and  fences, 
and  grass  seed,  amounts  to  practically  1 per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
farm,  leaving  the  landlord  a cash  balance  of  about  3 per  cent.  Out 
of  this  3 per  cent,  an  additional  I/2  per  cent  should  be  deducted  for 
depreciation  of  farm  buildings.  In  figuring  his  net  income,  a farmer 
should  subtract  enough  from  each  year’s  receipts  so  that  when  his 
buildings  are  finally  worn  out,  he  will  have  enough  set  aside  to  con- 
struct new  buildings  as  good  as  the  old  ones  were  when  new.  This 
charge  is,  of  course,  in  addition  to  repairs  and  maintenance.  About 
2V2  per  cent  seems  to  be  the  actual  returns  to  cash-renting  landlords 
in  AVisconsin,  if  returns  are  figured  on  the  basis  of  the  market  value  of 
their  real  estate.  However,  if  returns  are  figured  on  the  basis  of 
original  investment,  that  is,  the  amount  paid  for  the  farm  plus  the  - 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


45 


* 


amounts  spent  upon  the  farm  from  time  to  time  for  additional  im- 
provements, they  will  be  much  higher  than  21/2  per  cent,  especially  when 
land  values  are  rising  rapidly  as  at  present.  A 2Y2  per  cent  on  the 
market  value  of  an  average  farm  in  Wisconsin  in  1915  is  equal  to  a 
3.8  per  cent  return  on  the  amount  paid  for  the  same  farm  in  1905,  and 
probably  2^/^  per  cent  on  the  1920  valuation  would  equal  from  4 to  5 
per  cent  on  the  values  of  1910. 

The  tenant’s  share  at  cash  rent.  Table  III.  shows  how  the  income 
of  45  cash-rented  farms  was  divided  between  landlord  and  tenant. 


Table  III.  Division  of  Income  of  45  Cash-rented  Farms  in 
Wisconsin—  1914-16* 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

Investment 

$17,590 

1,893 

823 

$14,800 

570 

$2,790 

Gross  receipts 

1,323 

Current  expenses 

137 

686 

Depreciation 

112 

65 

47 

Net  income 

958 

368 

590 

The  tenant  matches  his  own  labor  and  management,  his  $2,790  of 
equipment,  $686  of  current  expenses,  and  $47  of  depreciation  on  his 
machinery,  against  the  landlord’s  $14,800  farm,  $137  of  cash  outlay  for 
taxes,  seeds  and  the  like,  and  $65  of  depreciation,  and  gets  as  a return 
$590,  or  62  per  cent  of  the  net  farm  income,  this  income  including  in- 
crease in  livestock  and  crops,  but  not  in  land  values.  To  this  $590 
should  be  added  the  value  of  the  house  rent,  fuel,  meat,  and  so  forth, 
which  the  tenant’s  family  receives  from  the  farm,  worth  probably  $400 
in  1914-15.  From  this  total  of  $990  should  be  subtracted  $155  of  in- 
terest on  the  tenant’s  working  capital  (at  5.6  per  cent),* **  leaving  a 
balance  of  $835.  This  sum  covers  both  his  wages  for  labor  and  wages 
for  management.  If  the  tenant’s  labor  at  hired  men’s  rates  was  worth 
$475,  his  profits  or  wages  of  management  would  be  $360.  The  land- 
lord’s net  income,  according  to  Table  II,  was  2.48  per  cent  on  the 
market  value  of  this  farm,  or  3.8  per  cent  return  on  the  original  in- 
vestment if  made  10  years  previously. 

Why  landlords’  returns  are  loiv.  The  reason  that  landlords’  returns 
are  low  is  that  enough  landlords  are  willing  to  become  landlords  at 
these  low  returns  to  supply  prospective  tenants  with  all  the  land  to 
rent  they  want  at  these  figures.  If  the  rents  were  higher,  more  young 


* This  table  shows  division  of  income  satisfactorily  but  not  total  in- 
comes. The  farms  are  poorer  than  the  average  cash-rented  farms  of 

fVip  qIpIp 

**  See  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  247. 


46 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


men 'would  buy  instead  of  renting.  Tenants  prefer  owning  to  renting 
principally  for  the  very  same  reason  that  landlords  want  to  own  land 
— both  are  figuring  on  the  rise  in  the  value  of  land.  The  bidding  be- 
tween these  two  parties  sets  the  rents  where  they  are.  The  ^'alue  of 
farm  lands  and  buildings  rose  over  3 per  cent  a year  in  Wisonsin 
between  1905  and  1915.  Landlords  have  no  reason  to  expect  rents  on 
farm  lands  to  pay  them  the  usual  rates  of  interest  on  other  investments. 
The  market  value  of  land  represents  two  things,  pi-esent  earning  power, 
and  anticipated  increase  in  earning  power.  Normal  rates  of  interest 
can  be  expected  only  on  present  earning  power.  From  one-fifth  to 
two-fifths  of  the  market  price  of  all  land  in  Wisconsin  represents  an- 
ticipated increase  in  earning  power,  expressed  in  higher  future  land 
values. 

Other  reasons  why  landlords’  returns  are  low  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Farm  land  has  usually  been  considered  a safe  investment  in  Wis- 
consin, especially  by  the  landlord  class,  which  is  largely  made  up  of 
retired  farmers.  (2)  Speculation  in  land  lowers  returns  by  putting 
moi'e  farms  on  the  market  for  rent  and  also  by  raising  the  price  of 
land  by  making  buyers  overestimate  both  its  present  and  its  future 
earning  power.  (3)  Rents  always  advance  somewhat  more  slowly  than 
prices  of  farm  products  and  in  ordinary  times  more  slowly  than  land 
values.  (When  prices  of  farm  products  rise  sharply,  as  during  the 
war  period,  rents  vdll  usualkf  rise  ahead  of  land  values.  In  fact,  rents 
may  ilse  and  fall  again  and  land  values  not  be  affected.)  Theoretic- 
ally, land  values  ai’e  supposed  to  depend  upon  rents,  but  actually,  in  a 
country  where  only  a small  part  of  the  land  is  rented,  rents  are  usually 
fixed  at  the  customary  rate,  or  at  a nominal  increase  upon  it,  or  with 
reference  to  the  market  value  of  the  farm  as  determined  by  comparison 
with  similar  farms  in  the  same  neighborhood.  (4)  Taxes  are  recently 
much  higher  in  Wisconsin  than  formerly.  Landlords  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  raise  rents  enough  to  compensate  for  the  higher  taxes.  Rents 
always  lag  behind  taxes.  (5)  Cash  tenants  often  have  too  little 
equipment  for  profitable  farming.  Hence  they  can  safely  offer  only  a 
low  rent. 

Cash  rents  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  Cash  rents  by  the  acre 
vary  only  in  a general  way  with  the  market  prices  of  land.  Table  IV 
compares,  for  eight  different  sections  of  Wisconsin,  the  cash  rents  an 
acre  in  1916-17  with  the  market  value  of  rented  land  and  rate  of  return 
u])on  market  value.  Cash  rents  are  high  relative  to  land  values 
wherever  prevailing  interest  rates  are  relatively  high,  as  in  northern 
Wisconsin;  where  landlords  furnish  all  grass  and  clover  seed;  and 
wherever  shai'e  renting  pi'edominates,  as  in  the  Rock  River  Valley. 
Cash  rents  are  relatively  low  where  interest  rates  are  low,  as  in  eastern 
Wisconsin;  whei'e  s})eculation  is  unusually  active;  where  tenants  are 
unusually  poor  farmers;  where  frequent  crop  failures  increase  the 
risks  of  farming;  and  near  large  cities  where  laud  is  relatively  over- 
valued with  res])ect  to  ])roductiou. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


47 


Table  IV.  Comparison  of  Rents,  Land  Values  and  Rate  op  Return 
FOR  1155  Farms  in  8 Sections  of  Wisconsin. 


Value  of 
rented  land 
an  acre 

Cash  rents 
an  acre 

Per  cent 
cash  rent  of 
value 

Eastern— Lake  Shore 

$115.00 

$4.36 

3.79 

Rock  River  Valley 

115.00 

4.67 

4.06 

Southwestern  Upland 

118.50 

4.71 

3.98 

Central  Western 

74.60 

2.74 

3.66 

Central  Sandy  Plain 

60.10 

2.22 

3.69 

Northwestern— Grain  Section  — 

75.60 

3.20 

4.23 

Semi-settled  Section 

70.30 

2.94 

4.18 

Extreme  Northern 

45.70 

1.92 

4.22 

State  

99.00 

3?^ 

3.94 

Division  op  Farm  Income  at  Share  Rent 

Following  is  a series  of  tables  which  analyze  the  farm  business  of  a 
large  number  of  farms  rented  under  the  various  types  of  share  leases 
used  in  Wisconsin.  The  method  of  analysis  will  appear  from  the 
tables.  All  the  items  are  given  for  the  farm  enterprise  as  a whole, 
and  for  landlord  and  tenant  separately.  The  total  investment  is  divided 
into  investment  in  real  estate  and  in  equipment.  Likewise  the  gross 
receipts  are  divided  into  cash  receipts  and  increase  in  inventory.  From 
the  gross  receipts,  the  cash  expenses  and  the  depreciation  charges  are 
subtracted.  The  remainder,  called  net  income,  is  the  amount  of  actual 
increase  upon  the  original  investment.  From  net  income  is  subtracted 
the  wages  of  the  tenant  for  his  actual  labor  at  the  going  wage  for 
hired  men,  interest  on  the  landlord's  investment  in  real  estate  at  the 
going  rate  for  investments  in  land,  and  interest  at  the  market  rate  for 
long-time  loans  for  landlord’s  and  tenant’s  investments  in  equipment 
and  livestock.  The  remainder  is  profits,  or  wages  of  management. 

The  man-labor  charged  as  expense  consists  of  hired  labor  and  family 
labor,  the  hired  labor  at  actual  wages  paid  plus  the  estimated  cost  of 
the  board  insofar  as  not  furnished  by  the  farm  (approximately  $8  a 
month),  and  the  family  labor  at  its  estimated  hired  labor  equivalent. 
The  farmer’s  wage  as  his  own  hired  man  was  taken  from  Wisconsin 
Bulletin  316,  ^^Fann  Labor  in  Wisconsin.”*  Interest  on  equipment  and 
livestock  is  based  on  Wisconsin  Bulletin  247,  “Farm  Credit  in  Wiscon- 
sin.” Interest  on  investment  in  land  was  based  on  Tables  I.  and  IV. 


* This  method  of  computing-  the  wages  of  the  farmer  and  his  family 
IS  not  very  accurate. 


48 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


It  is  assumed  tliat  the  net  return  which  landlords  are  willing  to  take 
upon  land  at  cash  rent  is  a proper  rate  to  use  as  the  market  rate  for 
investment  in  land.  This  is  a true  market  rate  based  upon  the  bids  of 
a very  large  number  of  landlords  and  tenants,  each  bidding  in  full 
recognition  of  the  possible  alternative  uses  of  their  capital,  management 
and  labor.  Under  share  rent,  the  landlord  assumes  greatly  increased 
burdens  of  management  and  responsibility.  Under  cash  rent,  he  as- 
sumes very  light  burdens  of  responsibility.  The  surplus  a landlord 
gets  at  share  rent  over  what  he  could  get  at  cash  rent  is,  therefore, 
properly  considered  profits  or  wages  of  management. 


Table  V.  Summary  of  the  Business  of  66  Farms  in  Green  County, 
Wisconsin,  Operated  under  Half-and-Half  Dairy  Leases, 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

Number  of  acres 

210  j 

Value  per  acre 

$120 

Investment 

$30,586 

$27,439 

$3,147 

Real  estate 

$25,200 

$25, 200 

Equipment 

5,386 

2,239 

. $3,147 

Gross  receipts 

3,110 

1,526 

1,584 

Cash  receipts 

2,140 

1.042 

1,098 

Increase  in  inventory 

970 

484 

486 

Cost  charges 

1,265 

537  i 

758 

Cash  expenses 

1,070 

405 

665 

Man  labor* 

481 

5 

476 

Taxes  and  insurance 

234 

211 

23 

Upkeep 

64 

45 

19 

Other  cash  expenses 

291 

144 

147 

Depreciation  on  real  estate  . . . 

132 

132 

Depreciation  on  equipment . . , 

63' 

63 

Net  income 

1,845 

989 

856 

Additional  cost  charges 

1,483 

788 

695 

Interest  on  real  estate* 

655 

655 

.... 

“ “ equipment^ 

320 

133 

187 

Farmer’s  wages® 

• 508 

508 

Profits 

362 

201 

161 

‘At  2.6  per  cent,  the  cash-rent  return,  minus  taxes  and  other  expenses.  See 
Tai)les  1.  and  IV. 

2At5,95  per  cent.  See  Hul.  247,  Wis.  A^r.  Exp,  Sta.  || 

®At  $40S,  plus  nOO  for  the  part  of  the  farmer’s  board  which  is  not  furnished  by  the 
farm. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


49 


Table  VI g Summary  of  the  Business  op  50  Farms  in  Dane  and  Wal- 
worth Counties  Operated  under  Half-and-Half  Dairy  Leases. 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

Number  of  acres 

163 

Value  per  acre 

$111 

Investment 

S21, 719 

$19,396 

$2,323 

$18,156 

$18,156 

Equipment 

3,563 

1,240 

2,323 

Gross  receipts 

2,665 

1,282 

1,383 

Cash  receipts 

2,164 

1,037 

1,127 

Increase  in  inventory 

501 

245 

256 

Cost  charges 

1,058 

403 

655 

Cash  expenses 

94^ 

327 

618 

Man  labor 

394 

3 

391 

Taxes  and  insurance 

167 

145 

22 

Upkeep 

77 

53 

24 

Other  cash  expenses 

307 

126 

181 

Depreciation  on  real  estate 

76 

76 

Depreciation  on  equipment . . . 

37 

37 

Net  income 

1,607 

879 

728 

Additional  cost  charges 

1,133 

531 

602 

Interest  on  real  estate  * 

468 

468 

.... 

on  equipment* 

181 

63 

118 

Farmer’s  wages* 

484 

484 

Profits 

474 

348 

126 

(*)  At  2.58  per  cent.  O At  5.1  per  cent.  (^)  At$3S4  plus  $100. 

The  66  farms  reported  in  Table  V.  are  large  dairy  farms.  They 
average  27  milk  cows  a farm;  76  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts  are 
from  cattle,  and  19  per  cent  from  hogs.  The  farms  in  Table  VI.  are 
smaller  and  not  so  exclusively  given  to  dairying.  The  gross  receipts 
are  smaller,  but  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  farms.  Table 
VII.  combines  the  reports  of  10  farms  in  central  and  northern  Wis- 
consin operated  under  landlord's  cattle  dairy  leases.  This  lease  is 
generally  used  in  the  newer  sections  where  tenants  are  scarce  and  land 
is  not  so  valuable.  The  10  farms  average  120  acres  in  size  and  are 
worth  only  $82  per  acre.  This  makes  a real  estate  investment  of 
$10,840  as  compared  with  $27,439  and  $19,396  in  the  first  two  tables. 
The  landlords  furnish  the  milk  cows,  brood  sows,  and  usually  half  the 
poultry.  The  young  stock  is  divided  half  and  half.  The  landlord 
usually  stands  the  depreciation  on  the  parent  stock. 


50 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Table  VII.  Summary  op  the  Business  of  10  Farms  Operated  under 
Landlord’s  Cattle  Dairy  Leases. 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

Number  of  acres 

120 

V alue  per  acre 

$82 

Investment 

$11,595 

$10,840 

$755 

Real  Estate J 

$9, 850 

$9,850 



Equipment 

1,745 

990 

$75i 

Gross  receipts 

1,502 

714 

788 

Cash  receipts 

1,126 

$563 

$56; 

Increase  in  inventory 

376 

151 

22S 

Cost  charges 

549 

224 

325 

Cash  expenses 

462 

169 

293 

Man  labor 

176 

— 

• 17( 

Taxes  and  insurance 

76 

71 

I 

Upkeep 

38 

18 

2i 

Other  cash  expenses 

172 

80 

9! 

Depreciation  on  real  estate 

55 

55 

“ equipment.... 

32 

32 

Net  income 

953 

490 

463 

Additional  cost  chargres 

925 

431 

494 

Interest  on  real  estate^ 

369 

369 

“ equipment.’ 

108 

62 

41 

Farmer’s  wagres 

448 

441 

Profits 

28 

59 

-31 

(0  At  3.4  per  cent.  (®)  At  6.17  per  cent. 


Table  VIII.  combines  the  reports  of  several  farms  in  the  grain  sec- 
tion in  northwestern  Wisconsin  farmed  under  the  one  third  arrange- 
ment. As  will  be  seen,  the  tenant  furnishes  all  the  equipment,  all  the 
cash  expenses  except  taxes,  upkeep  of  real  estate,  grass  seed,  and  part 
of  the  twine  and  threshing,  and  gets  two-thirds  the  grain,  usually  half 
the  hay,  and  all  the  livestock  receipts.  The  tenant  of  course  feeds 
his  own  share  of  hay  and  grain  to  his  livestock.  The  tenants  reported 
in  the  table  paid  an  average  of  $27  cash  rent  in  addition  for  pasture 
for  their  livestock. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


51 


Table  VIII.  Analysis  of  Business  of  Farms  Operated  Under 
One-Third  Grain  Leases. 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

Number  of  acres 

193  . 

Value  per  acre 

$82  1 

1 

Investment 

$17,839  i 

$16,187  1 

$1,652 

$16,133  i 

$16,  133 

Equipment 

1,706 

54 

$1,652 

Gross  receipts 

1,946  1 

739 

1,207 

Cash  i-eceipts 

1,726  i 

723 

1,003 

Increase  in  inventory 

220 

16  1 

204 

Cost  charges 

845 

214 

1 631 

Cash  expenses 

782 

183 

599 

Man  labor 

341 

341 

Taxes  and  insurance 

132 

113 

19 

Upkeep 

38 

22 

16 

Other  cash  expenses 

271 

48 

223 

Depreciation  on  real  estate 

31 

§1 

.... 

Depreciation  on  equipment . . . 

32 

32 

Net  income 

1,101 

525 

1 576 

Additional  cost  charg-es .■ 

1,068 

509 

559 

Interest  on  real  estate^ 

506 

506 

“ on  equipment^ 

102 

3 

99 

Farmer’s  wages 

460 

460 

Profits 

33 

16 

17 

(0  At  3.08  per  cent.  (*)  At  6 per  cent. 

Table  IX.  analyzes  mixed  grain  and  dairy  leases.  These  leases  are 
used  in  sections  of  the  state  where  grain  farming  is  giving  place  to 
dairy  farming.  In  its_^provisions,  the  lease  used  is  much  like  a half- 
and-half  dairy  lease.  In  actual  fact,  it  is  quite  different,  because  al- 
though the  landlord  furnishes  half  the  milk  cows  and  sows,  only  a 
few  are  kept.  Most  of  the  grain  is  sold.  The  284-acre  farms  re- 
ported in  Table  IX.  average  only  8 cows  per  farm.  Thus  the  tenants 
furnish  the  major  part  of  the  equipment.  The  tenants  in  addition 
must  feed  their  work  horses  out  of  their  half  of  the  grain  and  pay 
the  usual  expenses  under  one-half  grain  leases. 


52 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


Table  IX.  Analysis  of  the  Business  op  Farms  Operated  Under 
Mixed  Grain  and  Dairy  Leases. 


Farm 

Landlord 

Tenant 

N umber  of  acres 

284 

Value  per  acre 

$70 

Investment 

$23,206 

$20,692 

$2,514 

$19,950 

$19,950 

Equipment 

3,256 

742 

$2,514 

Gross  receipts 

2,729 

1,427 

1,302 

Cash  receipts 

2,278 

1,209 

1.069 

Increase  in  inventory 

454 

221 

233 

Cost  charg-e 

1,084 

395 

689 

Cash  expenses 

902 

277 

625 

Man  labor 

368 

.... 

368 

Taxes  and  insurance 

188 

160 

28 

Upkeep 

55 

24 

31 

Other  cash  expenses 

291 

93 

198 

Depreciation  on  real  estate.  .. 

118 

118 

Depreciation  on  equipment . . . 

64 

64 

Net  income 

1,645 

1,032 

613 

Additional  cost  charges 

1,232 

622 

610 

Interest  on  real  estate* 

578 

578 

Interest  on  equipment* 

194 

44 

150 

Farmer’s  wages - 

460 

460 

Profits 

416 

413 

3 

(D  At  2.9  per  cent.  (^)  At  6 per  cent. 

Table  X.  summarizes  the  six  sets  of  farm  records.  The  share  of  the 
total  investment  furnished  by  the  tenant  is  nearly  twice  as  much  under 
cash  leases  as  under  the  share  leases.  The  reason  that  the  landlord’s 
share  is  larger  in  Table  V.  than  in  Table  VII.  is  that  his  land  in  the 
former  table  is  relatively  overvalued.  The  cheapness  of  the  land 
explains  the  largeness  of  the  tenant’s  share  under  the  mixed  grain  and 
dairy  leases.  Increase  in  inventory  on  horses  sometimes  gives  half- 
and-half  tenants  slightly  more  than  half  the  gross  receipts.  Feeding 
horses  out  of  divided  grain  reduces  the  tenant’s  share  under  grain  and 
mixed  grain  and  dairy  leases.  The  labor  and  other  expenses  of  the 
tenants  usually  exceed  the  taxes,  insurance  and.  other  expenses  of  the 
landlord  sufficiently  to  reduce  their  net  incomes  to  several  per  cent 
under  half.  The  45  per  cent  in  Dane  and  Walworth  Counties  results 
because  the  tenants  were  paying  a larger  part  than  in  Green  County 
of  the  expenses  for  seeds,  twine,  threshing,  fuel  and  oil,  milk-hauling 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


53 


Table  X.  Comparison  op  Tenant’s  Investment,  Expenditures, 
Income  and  Profits  Under  Various  Leases. 


Share  of  Tenant— Per  cent 


Kinds  of  leases 

Invest- 

ment 

Gross 

receipts 

Net 

income 

Costi 

charges 

TotaP 

profit 

Cash 

16 

70 

62 

70 

100 

Half-and-half  dairy 

(Green  County) 

9 

51 

47 

53 

74 

Half-and-half  dairy 

Dane  and  Walworth) 

11 

52 

45 

58 

60 

Landlord’s  cattle 

6 

53 

49 

55 

86 

Two-thirds  grain 

9 

62 

52 

62 

96 

Mixed  grain  and  dairy 

! 

48 

87 

56 

51 

(^)  Cash  expenses,  depreciation,  interest  on  investment  and  wages  of  farmer. 
(Cost  of  management  is  not  included.) 

(2)  Living  from  the  farm,  estimated  at  $400,  is  added  to  the  tenants’s  profits. 


and  the  like.  The  37  per  cent  under  the  mixed  grain  and  dairy  leases 
resulted  because  tenant’s  labor  expenses  were  relatively  high  and  land- 
lord’s taxes  low.  In  both  these  cases,  tenants  apparently  were  hiring 
too  much  labor  for  their  own  best  interests. 

When  landlord’s  interest  and  tenant’s  own  labor  and  interest  are 
added  to  current  expenses  to  give  total  cost  charges,  not  including 
wages  of  management,  the  tenant  is  found  to  be  contributing  much 
more  than  half  in  all  the  different  half-share  leases,  but  less  than  two- 
thirds  in  the  one-third  leases.  Tenant’s  net  incomes  are  always  a much 
smaller  proportion  of  the  total  than  their  cost  charges.  These  come 
nearest  to  being  in  the  same  proportion  in  Green  County  and  under 
the  landlord’s  cattle  leases.  Green  County  farming  is  extensive  sum- 
mer-season pasture  dairying.  The  disproportion  is  most  in  Dane  and 
Walworth  Counties  where  the  farming  is  more  intensive,  and  under  the 
mixed  grain  and  dairy  leases.  The  tenant’s  share  of  total  profits*  is 
most  where  his  share  of  the  total  cost  charges  is  low  relative  to  propor- 
tion of  net  income.  The  landlord  receives  very  little  profit  under  the 
two-thirds  grain  lease  where  he  contributes  practically  nothing  but  the 
land.  It  is  greater  where  he  contributes  working  capital  and  manage- 
ment, as  under  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease.  The  landlord’s  cattle 
leases  bring  poor  returns  to  both  landlord  and  tenant. 

If  the  reports  from  the  farms  worked  under  the  different  land-and- 
stock  share  leases  are  roughly  combined,  the  landlords  seem  to  be  get- 
ting what  they  would  from  cash  rent,  plus  interest  on  livestock  in- 
vestment, plus  about  $250  as  profits,  or  pay  for  management.  The 

* Total  profits  include  the  value  of  the  living-  which  the  tenant  gets 
from  the  farm,  in  the  form  of  rent,  fuel,  potatoes,  milk  and  the  like. 
This  has  been  omitted  from  Tables  6,  7,  8,  9 and  10.  Bulletin  635  of  the 
U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  called  “What  the  Farm  Contributes  to  the 
Parmer’s  Living,”  reckoned  the  value  of  this  living  in  1914  at  $375  for 
Wisconsin  families  averaging  4.2  persons,  including  hired  help.  Prices 
have  risen  since  1914.  But  tenant  families  are  often  small.  And  tenant 
houses  are  very  often  worth  less  than  average  rent.  In  many  cases  fuel 
is  not  furnished  as  part  of  the  living.  Whatever  the  tenant’s  living 
from  the  farm  is  worth,  this  amount  should  be  added  to  his  share  of 
“Profits.”  The  figure  $400  has  been  used  in  these  tables. 


54 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


tenants  seem  to  be  getting  wages  as  hired  men,  amounting  to  $475, 
plus  a profit  consisting  of  a partial  living  from  the  farm  for  their 
families,  estimated  to  be  worth  $400,  and  about  $125  in  addition.  This 
is  $165  more  than  the  $360,  the  wages  of  management  of  the  45  cash 
tenants  as  shown  in  the  discussion  following  Table  III.  These  45 
farms,  however,  are  far  poorer  than  the  average  cash-rented  farms. 
Of  the  total  farm  profits  under  share  rent,  the  tenants  are  getting  68 
per  cent  and  the  landlords  32  per  cent.  This  is  probably  about  in  pro- 
portion to  the  burden  of  management  and  responsibility  which  each 
assumes.  The  range  in  profits  on  the  share-rented  farms  studied  was 
all  the  way  from  $1,100  loss  to  $2,500  profit.  Most  of  the  very  large 
profits  were  due  to  the  landlord’s  herd  of  cattle  and  his  judgment  in 
buying  and  selling  and  planning  the  work.  But  the  major  part  of  all 
the  usual  profits  were  undoubtedly  due  to  the  tenant’s  judgment  and 
especially  his  skill  in  caring  for  the  crops  and  livestock  and  managing 
the  work  from  day  to  day.  Under  share  leases,  each  gets  the  benefits 
of  the  other’s  good  management.  Obviously  the  tenant  loses  by  this 
whenever  he  is  a better  manager  than  his  landlord,  and  he  gains  by  it 
when  he  is  a poorer  manager. 

Dividing  the  Expenses 

There  are  two  theories  which  farmers  advance  as  to  how  the  different 
expenses  should  be  divided  under  share  rent.  One  theory  is  that  the 
only  safe  and  proper  way  is  to  find  out  what  is  the  custom  in  the 
neighborhood  and  follow  it.  The  other  theory  is  that  the  expenses 
should  be  arranged  to  suit  the  particular  parties  and  the  farm  to  be 
worked,  the  ideal  being  that  the  expenses  are  divided  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  income. 

The  usual  justification  for  the  first  theory  is  that  the  prevailing  terms 
of  share  leases  represent  market  valuations  the  same  as  cash  rentals, 
wages,  and  prices  of  farm  products,  that  these  terms  are  determined  in 
fair  competition  between  landlord  and  tenant  on  the  basis  of  supply 
and  demand  and  therefore  represent  justice  between  them.  It  is  true 
that  farms  vary  greatly  in  quality,  but  so  do  tenant  farmers.  If  the 
good  tenants  get  the  good  farms,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case,  and  the 
poor  tenants  the  poor  farms,  then  justice  is  achieved  even  in  such 
cases.  The  landlord  is  making  a poor  land  contribution,  but  the  tenant 
is  making  a poor  management  contribution.  Another  argument  ad- 
vanced in  favor  of  this  method  is  that  it  protects  both  parties,  saves 
them  from  being  taken  advantage  of  by  the  other  party  when  that 
party  has  the  whip  hand.  If  either  party  allows  the  other  to  deviate 
fi’om  the  custom,  there  is  no  telling  where  it  will  stop.  Also,  when 
there  is  a standard  recognized  way  of  handling  farm  expenses,  eveiy 
one  knows  about  it  and  there  are  fewer  misunderstandings. 

The  arguments  against  always  following  the  custom  of  the  neighbor- 
hood are  as  follows:  (1)  Competition  does  not  in  actual  practice 
make  proper  adjustment  for  ditferences  among  farms,  landlords  and 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


55 


tenants.  Farms  vary  greatly  in  fertility,  improvements,  and  location. 
In  any  one  locality,  on  some  farms  the  crops  to  be  grown  are  largely 
of  the  labor-consuming  kind,  like  corn;  on  others,  they  are  mostly  hay 
and  small  grain.  The  cattle  furnished  by  landlords  and  tenants  vary 
greatly  in  quality.  Since  both  landlord  and  tenant  contribute  to  man- 
agement, the  relative  efficiency  of  the  two  is  a m_atter  of  great  import- 
ance. It  is  highly  improbable  that  competition  can  make  adjustment 
for  all  these  differences  by  getting  the  right  tenant  on  the  right  farm. 
(2)  Customary  arrangements  do  not  adapt  themselves  rapidly  enough 
to  changing  conditions,  such  as  changing  land  values,  wages,  types  of 
farming.  In  times  like  the  present,  this  is  a matter  of  great  concern. 

The  difficulty  with  the  second  theoiy  is  that  it  is  extremely  hard  to 
apply  it  even  in  a general  way,  because  it  is  impossible  accurately  to 
calculate  many  of  the  contributions  of  the  two  parties,  such  as  the 
rent  of  the  land,  the  value  of  the  farmer’s  own  labor,  the  value  of 
the  family  labor  used  on  the  farm,  and  above  all,  the  value  of  the 
management  contributed  by  landlord  and  tenant.  Also,  it  is  hard  to 
calculate  the  value  of  the  house-rent  and  supplies  the  tenant  receives 
from  the  farm. 

The  general  basis  of  value  for  all  these  contributions  is  their  prevail- 
ing market  prices.  For  the  landlord’s  land,  this  will  be  what  it  will 
rent  for  at  cash  rent.  For  the  farmer’s  own  labor  this  will  be  some- 
thing less  than  what  he  could  hire  out  for  as  a plain  hired  man,  plus 
an  allowance  for  that  part  of  his  board  which  is  not  furnished  out  of 
farm  supplies.  The  often-suggested  plan  of  figuring  the  value  of  the 
labor  of  other  members  of  the  family  on  the  farm  at  what  it  could 
hire  out  for  is  not  sound.  Any  amount  of  family  labor  is  willing  to 
work  at  all  sorts  of  tasks  on  owner-operated  farms  at  far  less  than  it 
would  hire  out  for  away  from  home,  and  it  is  not  fair  to  treat  family 
labor  on  rented  farms  on  any  different  basis.  And  where  can  one  go 
to  get  the  market  value  of  the  management  contributed  by  the  landlord 
and  tenant  on  a share-rented  farm?  The  method  used  on  owner-farms 
is  to  allow  for  all  the  other  expenses  and  call  the  rest  wages  of  manage- 
ment. The  method  has  not  been  properly  used,  however;  some  of  the 
expenses  have  usually  been  figured  so  high  that  nothing  has  been  left 
for  management.  The  rents  charged  have  been  twice  too  high.  Family 
labor  has  been  overvalued.  Besides,  the  value  of  the  living  obtained 
from  the  farm  has  not  usually  been  added  to  income.  If  all  of  these 
were  correctly  calculated  a result  might  be  obtained  that  approximated 
total  wages  of  management.  But  how  separate  the  shares  of  landlord 
and  tenant  in  this  wage?  In  some  cases,  something  like  a market 
value  for  the  tenant’s  share  can  be  obtained  by  combining  his  labor 
and  management  and  finding  what  the  two  together  could  be  hired  out 
for;  but  as  for  the  value  of  the  landlord’s  management,  the  case  is 
hopeless.  Therefore  the  plan  of  adjusting  the  shares  in  expenses  ac- 
cording to  particular  situations  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  work  out 
accurately. 

The  nearest  approach  to  such  a plan  as  the  foregoing  would  be  to 


56 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


have  the  tenant  and  landlord  agree  in  advance  as  to  a value  to  be 
placed  on  each  of  the  foregoing  items — rent,  wages  of  family  labor, 
wages  of  labor  and  management  of  the  tenant,  wages  of  the  landlord’s 
management,  and  value  of  living  obtained  from  the  farm.  Interest 
on  working  capital  and  depreciation  would  also  have  to  be  agreed  upon. 
In  settling  up  the  year’s  business,  the  cash  expenses  could  be  added 
to  the  foregoing,  and  either  the  farm  income  divided  according  to  ex- 
penses, or  expenses  divided  according  to  an  agreed  division  of  income. 
Ordinarily  an  inventory  would  not  need  to  be  taken,  because  each 
would  share  proportionately  in  the  increase. 

Such  a plan  as  the  foregoing  may  seem  too  involved  for  most  cir- 
cumstances. Following  are  two  plans  which  are  compromises  between 
the  above: 

1.  Follow  the  custom  so  far  as  possible,  and  when  not  possible  make 
allowances  for  it  in  some  other  part  of  the  lease.  For  example,  if  free 
fire  wood  for  the  tenant  is  the  custom,  and  the  farm  has  no  firewood, 
the  tenant  can  be  given  all  the  poultry,  or  a larger  share  of  the  poultry 
i-eceipts.  If  a farm  is  too  poor  to  rent  well,  the  tenant  can  be  given 
other  advantages.  Differences  of  this  sort  can  if  necessaiy  be  settled 
in  actual  cash  at  the  end  of  the  lease. 

2.  Count  the  tenant’s  labor  and  management,  family  labor  and  hired 
labor,  and  interest,  taxes,  depreciation  and  upkeep  on  his  equipment, 
as  equal  to  the  landlord’s  mangement,  interest,  taxes,  upkeep  and  de- 
preciation on  real  estate  and  equipment.  Divide  the  other  expenses 
half-and-half,  by  estimating  their  amounts  in  advance,  or  by  settlement  ' 
afterwards. 

The  great  merit  of  any  plan  which  would  divide  income  on  the  basis 
of  expenses,  or  expenses  on  the  basis  of  income,  would  be  that  it  would 
give  the  tenant  the  full  benefit  of  all  the  extra  labor  he  hired. 

Relations  Between  Landlord  and  Tenant 

If  landlords  and  tenants  could  be  kept  on  better  terms  with  one 
another,  leases  would  be  made  for  longer  periods,  herds  would  be 
broken  up  less  often,  and  buildings  and  fences  would  be  better  main- 
tained. The  first  essential  to  right  relations  between  landlord  and 
tenant  is  the  choice  of  a suitable  farm,  the  second  essential  is  right 
choice  of  partners,  the  third  is  a thorough  understanding  when  the  bar* 
gain  is  made,  and  the  fourth  is  a proper  attitude  toward  each  other 
in  handling  the  various  situations  constantly  arising  under  the  opera- 
tion of  the  lease. 

A suitable  farm.  The  suitable  farm  is  one  which  is  large  enough, 
productive  enough,  and  well  enough  located  so  that  it  will  yield  the 
tenant  a good  living  and  a surplus  after  the  landlord’s  rent  is  paid. 
ITis  is  more  important  under  share  leases  than  under  cash  leases,  be- 
cause a cash  tenant  is  free  to  work  out  if  his  farm  is  not  large  enough 
to  keep  liim  busy  at  home.  Share  tenants  on  daiiy  farms  must  be  es- 
jmcially  particular  about  the  quality  of  the  landlord’s  share  of  the  herd.  | 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


57 


Choice  of  landlord.  Most  common  of  all  is  the  retired  farmer,  a 
good  sort  on  the  whole,  but  likely  to  be  over-cautious  about  new  enter- 
prises, over  careful  with  expense  money,  and  slow  about  making  im- 
provements. Some  of  them  need  all  the  rent  to  make  both  ends  meet  in 
town.  Where  they  have  the  means  and  modern  business  ideas  and 
love  their  farms,  they  make  the  best  of  landlords.  Another  sort  of 
landlord  is  the  city  merchant,  banker,  doctor,  or  lawyer  who  is  in- 
vesting his  surplus  in  a farm,  perhaps  as  something  of  a plaything, 
perhaps  in  order  to  profit  on  the  rise  in  land  values.  Most  of  these 
men  are  good  landlords,  even  if  they  are  ignorant  about  farming.  The 
real  estate  speculator  is  less  desirable  as  a landlord — he  is  not  enough 
interested  in  the  business  of  the  farm  to  want  to  make  the  needed  im- 
provements. There  are  now  appearing  in  some  sections  a few  land- 
lords who  are  making  the  renting  of  farms  on  shares  a profession. 
They  obtain  control  of  several  farms  in  the  same  district,  select  high- 
class  tenants,  furnish  them  with  half  of  a good  herd  of  cattle,  including 
a sire,  lay  out  a plan  of  crop  rotation,  do  the  buying  and  selling,  and 
give  the  tenant  half  the  receipts.  Most  of  the  landlords  now  in  this 
business  are  upright  men  and  good  managers  and  j^hus  tenants  prosper 
under  their  care.  The  plan,  however,  offers  chances  for  abuse  of  the 
tenant. 

The  type  of  landlord  chosen,  however,  is  not  half  so  important  as 
his  personal  characteristics.  Is  he  nagging,  fault-finding,  over-particular 
about  small  details?  Is  he  firmly  convinced  that  his  notions  as  to 
farming  are  the  best  in  the  world?  Or  is  he  a reasonable,  open-minded, 
sort  of  person  interested  in  a tenant’s  welfare  about  as  much  as  his 
own  ? 

Choice  of  a tenant.  Tenants  in  Wisconsin  today  are  of  two  sorts, 
those  who  are  getting  ready  to  buy  a farm  as  fast  as  they  can,  and  those 
who  are  content  not  to  make  progress  in  that  direction.  In  a few 
instances,  the  latter  sort  are  properly  ambitious,  being  convinced  that 
renting  pays  better  than  owning.  All  the  rest  are  thriftless  hand-to- 
mouth  fellows  whom  no  landlord  wants  if  he  can  help  it.  The  first 
thing  for  a landlord  to  consider  in  a tenant,  therefore,  is  his  purpose 
in  farming.  It  will  pay  him  oftentimes  to  select  a young  fellow  with 
very  little  means  and  help  him  to  get  started.  Once  a landlord  gets  a 
tenant  of  this  kind,  he  ought,  if  possible,  to  keep  him  as  long  as  he  is 
willing  to  remain  a tenant. 

Written  leases  best.  Written  leases  should  be  drawn  up,  agreed  to 
and  signed  by  both  parties  before  the  tenant  moves  onto  the  farm.  If 
made  out  carefully  and  by  and  between  the  two  parties,  or  in  their 
presence,  so  that  each  and  every  provision,  is  clearly  and  correctly  un- 
derstood, the  chances  are  that  the  lease  will  never  again  be  referred 
to.  The  lease  is  not  the  important  thing;  it  is  the  understanding.  But 
the  only  way  to  get  a complete  understanding  is  to  put  all  the  terms 
of  the  lease  down  in  writing.  Then,  too,  both  parties  are  liable  to 
death  or  accident  at  any  time  and  it  is  well  to  have  some  written  record 
that  can  be  used  in  making  settlement.  For  this  reason  especially. 


58 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


written  leases  are  fully  as  necessary  between  members  of  the  family 
and  relatives  as  between  strangers. 

Avoiding  trouble:  Rules  for  the  landlord.  Most  of  the  troubles 
that  arise  between  landlords  and  tenants  under  the  operation  of  the 
leases  center  about  the  following  things, — deciding  what  crops  to  grow ; 
selling  livestock;  sharing  expenses;  making  repairs  and  improvements, 
damages  to  buildings,  division  of  receipts,  especially  poultry  receipts, 
and  division  at  the  end  of  the  lease.  Following  are  a number  of 
suggestions  which  successful  landlords  make  time  and  time  again  as  to 
the  handling  of  tenants : 

1.  Keep  your  eyes  on  the  big  things  about  the  farm  enterprise,  the 
things  that  are  earning  most  of  the  money.  Don’t  quarrel  with  a 
tenant  over  a basket  of  eggs  or  a broken  window-light. 

2.  Help  your  tenant  to  make  a good  income.  You  may  have  to  help 
him  buy  some  good  cows  or  horses  or  a corn  binder,  or  hire  him  some 
extra  help.  But  you  can’t  afford  to  have  either  a cash  or  a share 
tenant  on  your  farm  who  doesn’t  make  money.  The  success  of  the 
tenant  is  what  determines  the  rent. 

3.  Be  not  too  fre^with  advice,  especially  with  a new  tenant.  Begin 
with  a new  tenant  by  doing  him  some  real  service,  and  soon  he  will  be 
coming  to  you  asking  for  advice.  Indirect  suggestions,  when  they  are 
not  insinuations,  are  much  better  received  than  advice. 

4.  Live  up  to  the  last  letter  of  the  agreement  in  what  you  are  to 
furnish  the  tenant,  especially  in  the  matter  of  improvements.'^  Repairs 
to  the  house  and  the  cistern  are  most  important  of  all.  The  housewife 
is  probably  overworking  herself  at  the  best. 

5.  In  those  things  which  are  left  to  mutual  agreement,  avoid  dictating 
to  the  tenant.  Let  his  judgment  rule  if  you  cannot  convince  him  that 
he  is  wrong,  unless  the  matter  is  of  great  consequence.  If  you  are 
convinced  the  tenant  usually  has  poor  judgment,  and  consequences  of  it 
are  serious,  wait  till  the  end  of  the  year  and  get  a new  one. 

6.  It  is  important  to  keep  relations  cordial.  If  they  cannot  be  so 
maintained  it  may  be  best  to  find  a new  tenant. 

7.  If  you  have  trouble  with  a tenant,  first  let  things  cool  down. 
Then  if  need  be,  change  tenants  when  the  year  is  up. 

8.  Be  absolutely  regular  about  business  dealings,  settling  all  accounts 
strictly  on  time  and  in  a business-like  way.  Let  a bank  keep  your 
accounts  if  possible. 

9.  Do  not  figure  so  closely  on  small  items  as  to  give  the  impression 
of  being  mean  and  small. 

10.  Don’t  be  guilty  of  counting  the  eggs  in  the  nest-boxes,  or  the  corn- 
cobs in  the  horses’  feed  boxes. 

Avoidiiig  trouble:  Rules  for  the  tenant — 

1.  Make  the  landlord  trust  you.  You  cannot  afford  to  be  guilty  of 
the  slightest  irregularity  or  in  taking  the  least  advantage  of  the  land- 
lord. Uneasy  is  the  lot  of  a suspicious  landlord,  and  he  will  make  the 
tenant’s  lot  no  less  uncomfortable. 


Farm  Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 


59 


2.  Keep  your  landlord  feeling  kindly  toward  you  as  long  as  you 
stay  with  him.  It  will  cost  you  only  a Uttle  forbearance  and  bring 
you  many  things  you  want. 

3.  Keep  up  the  appearance  of  the  premises.  The  farm  is  your 
home.  It  will  pay  in  both  money  and  satisfaction  to  give  it  a homelike 
aspect; 

4.  Take  fully  as  good  care  of  jointly  owned  property  as  you  do  of 
your  own. 

Is  Tenancy  Desirable? 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  discuss  in  full  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  tenancy,  but  merely  to  point  out  a few  of  the 
important  facts  bearing  on  the  question.  Whether  tenancy  is  desir- 
able or  not  can  be  decided  only  by  comparing  it  with  its  substitutes. 
These  substitutes  are  as  follows:  (1)  more  farm  laborers,  (2)  more 
and  heavier  mortgages,  (3)  smaller  farms.  The  proportion  of  laborers 


Table  XL  Comparing  the  Farm  Business  of  Owned  and  Rented 
Farms  in  8 Counties  in  Wisconsin,  1913-15. 


Farms  Operated  by 

265 

owners 

148 

share 

tenants 

45 

cash 

tenants 

42 

part 

owners 

Number  of  acres 

140 

191 

152 

150 

V alue  per  acre 

$86 

$112 

$97 

$94 

Value  real  estate 

$12,814 

$21,400 

$14,800 

$8,590* 

Value  eauipment, 

2,614 

4,150 

2,790 

2,290 

Gross  receipts'* 

2,071 

2,815 

1,893 

1,904 

Additional  man  labor* 

339 

323 

318 

308 

Other  currant  expenses 

526 

807 

505 

548» 

Depreciation 

102 

161 

812 

98 

Net  income 

1,104 

1,724 

958 

950 

Interest  on  real  estate^ 

314 

525 

363 

211 

Interest  on  equipment® 

146 

266 

156 

128 

Farmer’s  wages 

475 

475 

475 

475 

Profits 

169 

458 

36 

136 

Profits  plus  living  from  farm'* 

i 564  . 

858 

364 

536 

Additional  labor  an  acre 

2.42 

1.69 

2.08 

2.05 

Equipment  an  acre 

18.70 

24.90 

18.40 

15.30 

1 Rented  land  (58  acres)  not  included. 
^Includes  increase  in  inventory. 

® Includes  cash  rent  on  27  cash  rented  acres. 
^ Includes  family  labor  and  hired  labor. 

® At  2.45  per  cent.  See  Table  II. 

* At  5.6  per  cent.  See  Table  II. 

^ Livintr  from  farm  reckoned  at  $400. 


60 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  47 


is  constantly  increasing-  as  it  is.  In  eveiy  1000  agricultural  workers  in 
Wisconsin,  386  were  laborers  in  1910  as  compared  with  292  in  1880. 
There  Avere  only  25  more  tenants  in  every  1,000  in  1910  than  in  1880. 
In  every  1000  owned  farms  in  Wisconsin,  85  more  were  mortgaged  in 
1910  than  in  1890.  Wisconsin  was  the  only  state  west  of  the  Alle- 
glianies  in  which  the  ratio  of  mortgage  debt  to  value  of  farms  in- 
creased between  1890  and  1910.  The  mortgaged  fanns  in  Wisconsin 
in  1910  were  A^ery  much  smaller  and  cheaper  than  rented  farms,  and 
noticeably  smaller  than  the  mortgage-free  farms.  Apparently  Wis- 
consin fanners  have  freely  chosen  the  substitutes  for  tenancy. 

Table  XI.  compares  the  records  of  the  rented  and  OAvned  famis  studied 
in  eight  counties  of  Wisconsin.  The  tenants  are  on  the  larger  and 
more  valuable  farms  and  are  making  the  largest  incomes.  The  principal 
reason  for  this  is,  of  course,  that  most  of  the  tenants  are  found  in 
southern  Wisconsin  where  land  values  are  higher.  Share  tenants  are 
making  larger  incomes  than  cash  tenants  largely  because  they  are  most 
abundant  in  sections  where  land  is  valuable  and  farms  quite  large.  The 
principal  reason  that  owners  are  making  less  profits  than  share  tenants 
is  that  many  of  the  owners  are  older  men  who  make  a fair  living  farm- 
ing in  a leisurely  manner  with  obsolete  methods,  Avhereas  the  tenants 
are  wide-awake  young  men  who  are  hustling  to  get  a foothold  on  the 
agricultural  ladder.  In  many  neighborhoods,  a larger  proportion  of 
owners  than  of  tenants  are  poor,  slack  farmers.  Mortgaged  owners 
are  no  doubt  as  industrious  as  tenants,  but  they  are  handicapped  because 
they  are  farming  on  smaller  and  poorer  farms. 

The  significance  of  these  figures  is  that  they  point  out  veiy  clearly 
to  all  concerned  Avhat  the  usual  choices  are  for  a young  man  in  Wis- 
consin with  limited  capital.  He  can  migrate  to  a section  of  the  state 
where  land  is  cheap,  or  perhaps  hunt  out  a small  or  a cheap  f^rm  in 
his  OAvn  neighborhood.  If  he  makes  this  choice,  his  income  Avill  ordi- 
narily be  small.  Or  he  can  rent  a somewhat  larger  and  better  farm  in 
some  cash-renting  neighborhood.  His  net  income  Avill  probably  be 
somewhat  larger.*  Or  he  can  work  some  large  and  valuable  farm  in  a 
sli are-renting  neighborhood  and  make  the  largest  income  of  all. 

This  comparison  does  not  tell  quite  all  the  story.  The  age  and  ex- 
perience of  the  jmung  man  needs  to  be  considered.  Tenancy,  especially 
share  tenancy,  is  an  excellent  apprenticeship  in  management.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  young  men  Avork  better  and  save  better  on  their  OAvn 
farms  tlian  on  rented  farms. 

FeAv  thoughtful  people  desire  a-  complete  tenant  sj-stem  of  farming 
in  this  country.  On  the  other  hand,  many  look  with  approval  upon  a 
moderate  amount  of  tenancy.  The  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
young  man  on  the  Wisconsin  farm  will  ordinarly  fare  better  in  his 
life’s  journej^,  if  he  considers  the  end  as  well  as  the  beginning,  and 
includes  tenancy  as  one  of  the  stages  in  his  pilgrimage. 


* Attention  should  here  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  cash-rent  data 
ma'sented  do  not  include  instances  in  southwestern  AVisconsin  and  some 
otln  r sections  of  the  state  where  cash  rent  is  most  common. 


Research  Bulletin  48 


November^  1920 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


L.  R.  JONES,  J.  C.  WALKER  and  W.  B.  TISDALE 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Cabbage  yellows  in  the  United  States 3 

Cause  and  development  3 

Distribution  4 

Recent  work  with  Wisconsin  Hollander . 6 

Wisconsin  Hollander  in  commercial  fields 6 

Early  Wisconsin  Hollander,  a new  strain 10 

Resistant  selections  of  other  varieties 12 

Wisconsin  Brunswick  13 

Wisconsin  All  Seasons IS 

^Selections  of  other  varieties 22 

All  Head  Early  23 

Glory  of  Enkhuizen 24 

Copenhagen  Market  24 

Present  status  summarized 25 

Commercial  production  and  distribution  of  resistant  seed....  27 

Summary  and  conclusions 32 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage^ 

The  disease  known  as  cabbage  yellows  is  making  impossible 
the  successful  culture  of  the  cabbage  in  large  and  apparently  in- 
creasing areas  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  ten  years  ago  the 
senior  author  began  a study  of  the  disease  in  the  Racine  district 
of  southeastern  Wisconsin.  This  soon  led  to  the  development 
of  a disease-resistant  strain  of  the  Hollander  or  Ball  Head  vari- 
ety which  has  since  been  distributed  and  successfully  grown 
commercially  under  the  name  Wisconsin  Hollander.  The  gen- 
eral facts  regarding  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the  results 
with  control  measures,  especially  through  disease  resistance, 
were  presented  in  an  earlier  bulletin.^  Since  that  date  the  work 
has  been  continued  with  some  advances  both  in  regard  to  the 
study  of  the  disease  and  the  control  measures. 

Cause  and  development  of  the  disease.  Cabbage  yellows  is 
caused  by  the  soil  fungus  Fusarium  conglutinans  Wollenw. 
This  has  been  found  by  Tisdale®  to  penetrate  the  root  hairs  of 
the  cabbage  plants  as  does  the  similar  flax  wilt  Fusarium,  push- 
ing thence  back  through  the  cortical  tissues  until  it  reaches  the 
vascular  system.  The  invasion  of  the  vessels  proceeds  rapidly 
from  the  fibrous  roots  through  the  stem  into  the  leaves.  This 
leads  to  the  progressive  browning  and  death  of  the  vascular  ele- 
ments followed  by  a slow  yellowing  of  the  aerial  parts.  The  in- 
vaded plants  soon  begin  to  shed  their  lower  leaves  while  making 
a weak  effort  at  continued  growth  above.  The  disease  may  ap- 
pear in  the  seed  bed  but  is  chiefly  in  evidence  in  the  field  after 
transplanting.  In  the  worst  cases  in  such  field  attacks,  death 
may  result  in  a week  or  two  after  the  plants  are  set  out.  The 


1 This  work  has  been  much  strengthened  because  of  the  hearty  support  of 
' Dr.  W.  A.  Orton,  head  of  the  Office  of  Cotton,  Truck,  and  Forage  Crop 
Disease  Investigations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  This  office  has 
contributed  most  of  the  services  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Walker  and  has  also  met  other 
expenses.  It  has  further  cooperated  through  Dr.  J.  B.  S.  Norton,  who  has 
successfully  grown  seed  from  selected  heads  in  the  Washington  greenhouses 
during  two  winters.  Both  J)r.  Norton  and  Professor  L.  L.  Harter,  also  of 
this  office,  have  offered  valuable  suggestions, 

^ Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Gilman,  J.  C.  The  control  of  cabbage  yellows  through 
disease  resistance.  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  38.  1915. 

® Tisdale,  W.  H.  Flax  wilt:  a study  of  the  nature  and  inheritance  of  wilt 
resistance.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  XI:  573.  1917. 


i Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 

majority  of  “yellows”  diseased  plants  continue  their  sickly  ex- 
istence for  a few  weeks,  gradually  succumbing,  while  some  of 
those  slightly  invaded  may  live  through  the  summer  and  even 
form  heads. 

When  the  soil  is  once  infested,  the  fungus  seems  capable  of 
persisting  almost  indefinitely,  such  soils  being  thereby  rendered 
“cabbage  sick.”  Even  in  the  worst  “cabbage  sick”  soils,  how- 
ever, there  is  a marked  variation  in  severity  of  attack  from  year 
to  year.  This  results  from  the  fact  first  demonstrated  by  Gil- 
man^ that  aggressive  host  invasion  occurs  only  at  relatively  high 
soil  temperatures,  17°C.  (62°F.)  and  above.  This  means  that 
the  most  serious  development  of  yellows  is  limited  to  those  sea- 
sons having  relatively  hot  weather  during  the  early  part  of  the 
growing  season  and  especially  during  the  first  month  following 
transplanting,  which  is  late  June  and  early  July  in  Wisconsin. 

Distribution  of  the  disease.  In  geographical  distribution  the 
disease  seems  to  be  rather  widespread  in  its  occurrence  in  the 
eastern  United  States®  but  it  is  not  by  any  means  universal  in 
its  ravages.  It  seems  to  be  most  serious  commercially  in  the 
older  and  more  intensive  cabbage-growing  sections  from  Iowa 
and  southern  Wisconsin  across  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey.  Northward  the 
disease  is  certainly  less  prevalent  in  central  Wisconsin,  even  in 
old  cabbage  growing  areas,  than  it  is  in  the  southern  part.  Such 
data  as  are  available  from  Michigan,  New  York,  and  lower  Can- 
ada indicate  that  in  these  sections  also,  although  present  in  the 
southern  areas,  it  lessens  as  one  goes  northward.  Farther  south- 
ward its  occurrence  has  been  reported  to  us,  but  as  soon  as  one 
passes  to  the  regions  where  cabbage  is  grown  as  a winter  or  early 
spring  crop  the  seriousness  of  the  disease  wanes.  This  is  prob- 
ably explained  by  the  low  soil  temperature  prevailing  during  the 
early  growth  of  the  crop  under  these  conditions.  The  facts  as 
to  the  distribution  or  minor  occurrence  of  this  parasite  are  es- 
peciall}^  hard  to  determine  since  the  only  evidence  of  its  pres- 
ence is  the  development  of  the  disease  in  cabbage,  and  even 

* Gilman,  J.  C.  Cabbagre  yellows  and  the  relation  of  soil  temperature  to 
its  occurrence.  Ann.  Mo.  Bot.  Gard.  2:  25.  1916. 

'Harter,  L.  L.,  and  Jones,  L.  R.  Cabbage  diseases.  U.  S.  Dept,  Agr. 
Farmers’  Bui.  925.  1918. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


5 


where  this  occurs  it  is  often  difficult  for  one  not  quite  familiar 
with  both  diseases  to  distinguish  it  with  certainty  from  the  bac- 
terial black  rot.®  The  reported  distribution  seems  to  accord 
with  the  conception  that  the  cabbage  Fusarium  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  United  States,  at  least  from  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley eastward,  and  that  the  serious  development  of  the  disease 
where  intensive  prolonged  cabbage  culture  occurs  is  conditioned 
upon  favorably  high  soil  temperatures  during  the  early  stages  of 
development  of  the  plant.  It  is  noteworthy  in  this  connection 
that  the  disease  has  not  been  found^  in  the  cabbage  fields  of  Hol- 
land and  Denmark  although  these  include  the  oldest  and  most 
intensive  cabbage  districts  of  the  world.  It  has  not  developed 
in  the  cool  soil  of  the  Puget  Sound  coast.  Whatever  its  pres- 
ent distributional  limits,  there  seems  to  be  good  ground  for  be- 
lieving that  in  the  United  States  it  is  certain  to  be  introduced 
sooner  or  later  into  all  parts  of  the  country  where  cabbage  cult- 
ure is  long  practiced  and  that  once  introduced  it  will  persist  and 
spread  wherever  soil  temperature  conditions  permit.  In  the  ear- 
lier bulletin®  trials  were  recorded  with  various  measures  aiming 
at  the  control  of  the  parasite  after  once  introduced.  All  of 
these,  save  selection  for  disease  resistance,  gave  negative  results. 
The  conclusion  was  reached,  therefore,  that  it  is  only  through 
securing  Fusarium-resistant  strains,  suited  to  local  market  and 
climatic  conditions,  that  the  cabbage  industry  can  be  developed 
on  a sound,  permanent  basis  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Work  to  this  end  has,  therefore,  been  continued  with  the  coop- 
eration of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  This 
has  included,  (1)  further  work  with  the  Wisconsin  Hollander; 
(2)  the  development  of  resistant  strains  of  other  varieties,  es- 
pecially of  late  summer  types  used  largely  for  the  manufacture 
of  sauerkraut;  (3)  cooperation  with  growers  and  commercial 


* Jones  and  Gilman,  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  38,  p.  9. 

T This  statement  is  based  upon  the  judgments  of  Dr.  P.  Kdlpin  Ravn,  of 
Denmark,  Dr.  Johanna  Westerdijk,  of  Holland  and  Dr.  Otto  Appel  of  Ger- 
many, each  of  whom  some  years  ago  saw  the  disease  as  it  occurs  in  Wis- 
consin. Further  evidence  of  the  non-occurrence  of  the  disease  in  the  cooler 
climates  of  Europe  and  Asia  has  been  secured  in  1919  during  visits  to  our 
trial  grounds  of  the  following  foreign  pathologists,  none  of  whom  had  previ- 
ously met  with  it,  Messrs.  G.  H.  Pethybridge,  Ireland,  A.  D.  Cotton,  England 
Ivar  Jorstad,  Norway,  and  K.  Nakata,  Japan.  ’ 

* Jones  and  Gilman,  loc.  cit. 


5 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


organizations  in  the  production  and  distribution  of  seed  of  the 
resistant  strains;  (4)  further  studies  on  the  relation  of  envir- 
onment to  the  development  of  the  disease. 

RECENT  WORK  WITH  WISCONSIN  HOLLANDER 

The  name  Wisconsin  Hollander  was  given  in  the  earlier  bulle- 
tin to  the  Fusarium-resistant  strain  selected  from  the  commer- 
cial Hollander  or  Danish  Ball  Head.  For  the  details  concern- 
ing this,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  former  publication.® 
The  large  commercial  cabbage  growers  of  Wisconsin  are  inter- 
ested only  in  one  or  the  other  of  two  types  of  cabbage:  (1)  the 
late  variety,  Hollander  or  Danish  Ball  Head,  used  for  winter 
storage  purposes,  (2)  the  earlier  varieties  for  immediate  use 
chiefly  in  the  local  kraut  factories.  The  first  of  these  takes  the 
lead  in  most  parts  of  Wisconsin  and  has  therefore  merited  such 
further  attention  as  was  necessary  to  its  commercial  distribution 
and  use.  This  has  involved  during  the  last  five  years  the  criti- 
cal watching  of  its  growth  in  commercial  fields  under  different 
environmental  conditions,  attempts  at  possible  further  improve- 
ment, and  attention  to  the  growing  and  distribution  of  adequate 
supplies  of  seed. 

Wisconsin  Hollander  in  Commercial  Fields 

During  the  last  five  seasons,  1916-1920,  the  Wisconsin  Hol- 
lander has  been  grown  commercially  on  a constantly  increasimg 
acreage  in  the  older  Racine-Kenosha  cabbage  soils.  The  seed 
has  been  grown  locally  either  by  individual  farmers  or  under 
the  supervision  of  a growers’  committee  organized  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  1916  there  was  sufficient  seed  distributed  for  wide- 
spread planting,  though  on  a limited  scale.  Since  1917  the  sup- 
ply has  been  reasonably  adequate  for  local  needs.  To  determine 
for  themselves  the  relative  merits  of  the  yellows-resistant  Wis- 
consin Hollander  as  compared  with  the  non-resistant  commer- 
cial strains,  cabbage  growers  were  urged  during  the  first  two 
seasons,  1916  and  1917,  to  plant  at  least  one  or  more  rows  of 
some  commercial  type  in  the  same  field  with  the  Wisconsin  Hol- 


• Jones  and  Gilman,  loc.  cit. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


7 


lander  and  observe  the  results.  They  were  very  striking.  In 
1916  during  the  hot  weather  of  July,  the  disease  was  unusually 
destructive.  Figure  1 shows  some  of  the  evidences  which 
convinced  the  cabbage  growers  that  even  under  these  most  try- 
ing  conditions  of  1916  they  could  succeed  with  the  home-grown 


Commercial  cabbage  seed  — Disease- resistant  seed 


FIG.  1.— AVISCONSIN  HOLLANDER  VS.  COMMERCIAL  HOLLANDER 
ON  SICK  SOIL 

A farmer’s  trial  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  in  1916  (Scheckler’s  third  field, 
Table  I).  The  Commercial  Hollander  cabbage  which  was  planted  on  the  left 
was  practically  destroyed  by  yellows  and  the  ground  was  occupied  by  weeds. 
The  Wisconsin  Hollander  in  balance  of  field,  at  the  right,  gave  a highly 
profitable  crop. 


seed  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  when  the  non-resistant  strains  of 
Hollander  were  a commercial  failure.  Counts  were  made  in  late 
August  of  the  percentage  of  plants  showing  signs  of  yellows  in 
each  of  these  fields  where  the  Wisconsin  Hollander  was  planted 
beside  a comparable  commercial  variety.  The  results  Avere  as 
follows  from  the  twenty  fields. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


Table  I. — Results  of  Commercial  Trials  of  Wisconsin  Hollander 
Resistant  Compared  with  a Susceptible  Commercial  Strain. 
Racine  District.  1916.  (See  Figure  1 for  Appearance  of 
One  of  These  Fields.) 


Name  of  Grower 

Percentage  o 

In  Wisconsin 
Hollander 

f yellows 

In  commercial 
Hollander 

Bartholomew 

22.5 

92.0 

Hansche,  A.  & S 

14.3 

91.0 

Hansche,  A & S.  (second  field) 

11.0 

86.0 

Hansche,  Fred 

17.0 

86.5 

Hansche.  L.  E 

12.8 

50.0 

Klapproth 

43.7 

94.7 

Piper 

22  7 

90.3 

Drummond 

33.7 

93.7 

Horner 

23.9 

85.8 

Braid 

54.6 

100.0 

Kraus 

25.3 

73.0 

Scheckler 

21.7 

98.0 

Scheckler  (second  field) 

30.0 

98.8 

Scheckler  (third  field) 

17.8 

94.5 

J acobson 

15.6 

91.2 

Broesch,  M 

30.2 

98.3 

Broesch  H 

27.2 

93.2 

Thompson  Bros 

33.6 

85.2 

Lichter 

11.7 

89.6 

Abresch 

17.5 

88.4 

Average  of  twenty  fields 

24.3 

89.0 

As  shown  by  the  foregoing  averages,  less  than  one-fourth  of 
the  Wisconsin  Hollander  plants  showed  Fusarium  infection, 
whereas  the  commercial  strains  averaged  nearly  90  per  cent. 
These  figures  are  not  nearly  so  striking  as  was  the  actual  appear- 
ance of  the  fields.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  most  cases 
where  the  disease  did  occur  in  the  resistant  strain  it  was  so  slight 
that  the  plants  listed  as  having  yellows  usually  formed  good- 
sized  heads,  whereas  most  of  those  attacked  in  the  commercial 
strains  either  died  early  in  the  season  or  formed  no  heads  if  they 
lived. 

Results  in  1917.  In  1917  several  growers  continued  to  plant 
one  or  two  control  rows  of  commercial  cabbage  in  the  field  with 
the  Wisconsin  Hollander  for  purposes  of  comparison.  The  dis- 
ease was  less  severe  than  in  1916,  but  prevalent  enough  to  show 
a large  gain  where  the  resistant  strain  was  used.  Table  II 
gives  the  results  from  four  of  the  “sick”  fields  where  such  cou- 
trol  rows  were  included  in  the  planting. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


9 


Table  II. — A Comparison  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  and 
Hollander  in  Farmers’  Fields,  1917. 

Commercial 

Per  cent  of 

Name  of  grrower 

Strain  of  seed 

yellows 

Thomas 

Wisconsin  Hollander 

2 

Commercial  Hollander 

50 

Lichter 

Wisconsin  Hollander 

5 

Commercial  Hollander 

88 

Horner 

Wisconsin  Hollander 

10 

Commercial  Hollander 

(5 

.Tohnaon 

Wisconsin  Hollander 

7 

Commercial  Hollander 

97 

This  shows  an  average  of  only  6 per  cent  of  yellows  in  the 
Wisconsin  Hollander  as  compared  with  nearly  80  per  cent  in 
the  commercial  strains. 

Results  in  1918-19.  During  the  two  seasons  1918  and  1919 
the  cabbage  growers  having  ‘‘sick”  soil  accepted  the  evidence  of 
the  superiority  of  the  Wisconsin  Hollander  and  ceased  to  plant 
non-resistant  controls  in  their  fields.  Comparisons  that  could 
be  made  were  those  in  our  trial  grounds  where,  under  the  condi- 
tions of  1918,  no  yellows  whatever  was  evident  in  the  best  re- 
sistant selections  and  the  average  of  all  Wisconsin  Hollander  se- 
lections under  trial  showed  less  than  1 per  cent  of  diseased 
plants  whereas  the  commercial  control  showed  about  85  per  cent. 

In  1919,  owing  to  the  hot  dry  weather  in  July,  the  disease  was 
much  worse  than  in  1918.  The  result  was  that  a large  percen- 
tage of  the  plants  of  even  the  most  resistant  strains  of  Wiscon- 
sin Hollander  showed  some  indications  of  infection,  the  average 
of  all  strains  being  about  70  per  cent.  Most  of  these  were 
slightly  diseased,  however,  and  80  per  cent  lived  through  the 
season,  whereas  of  the  non-resistant  controls  every  plant  showed 
yellows  and  only  1 per  cent  lived  through  the  season. 

The  results  under  the  most  extreme  climatic  conditions  and 
in  the  various  types  of  soil  have,  therefore,  continued  fully  to 
justify  confidence  in  the  practical  merits  of  the  Wisconsin  Hol- 
lander as  originally  distributed.  Efforts  have  been  kept  up, 
however,  during  this  time  to  improve  upon  it  in  any  way  prac- 
ticable. 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  4S 


]U 


Early  Wisconsin  Hollander,  a New  Strain 


The  Wisconsin  Hollander  was  selected  from  the  strain  of  the 
Hollander  or  Danish  Ball  Head.  In  the  subsequent  trials  of 
this  selection  beside  the  original  Ferry^®  Hollander  the  former 
has  proved  to  be  more  vigorous,  to  have  a little  longer  stem,  a 
more  flattened  head,  and  to  require  a longer  season  for  matur- 
ing. (See  Fig.  2.)  'While  this  makes  it  a somewhat  heavier 


FIG.  2.— LATE  WISCONSIN  HOLLANDER 

Section  of  a typical  head  of  Late  Wisconsin  Hollander  cabbage.  In  com- 
parison with  the  Early  Wisconsin  Hollander,  (Fig.  3),  note  the  coarseness 
in  texture,  and  tendency  toward  “flattening.” 

yielder  in  seasons  having  a favorably  long  autumn,  under  less 
favorable  conditions,  it  may  fail  to  mature  as  large  a percentage 
of  heads.  In  any  case  the  date  of  liarvest  and  marketing  is 
delayed  somewhat.  In  tlie  judgment  of  representatives  of  the 
seed  company  and  of  W.  J.  Hansche,  secretary  of  the  local  cab- 
bage growers’  committee,  it  lias  seemed  commercially  desirable 

In  making  our  recent  comparisons  with  the  original  Perry  type  we  have  v 
had  the  helpful  cooperation  of  Mr.  Coulter  and  IMr.  MacKinnon. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


11 


to  try  to  secure  a strain  through  further  selection  from  the  Wis- 
consin Hollander  which  would  more  fully  combine  with  disease 
resistance  the  original  Hollander  characters  of  earliness,  round 
head,  and  short  stem.  Owing  to  Mr.  Hansche’s  skill,  gained 
through  long  experience  in  handling  and  judging  Hollander  cab- 
bage, we  have  in  recent  years  left  with  him  the  immediate  re- 
sponsibility for  the  head  selections  with  this  in  view.  Each  sea- 
son we  have  included  in  our  trial  grounds  such  head  strains  as 


FIG.  3.— EARLY  V^ISCONSIN  HOLLANDER 

Section  of  a typical  head  of  Early  Wisconsin  Hollander  cabbage.  In  com- 
parison with  Late  Wisconsin  Hollander  (Fig.  2),  note  the  compactness,  close 
grain  and  shape  approaching  the  spherical.  This  is  accepted  by  expert 
practical  growers  and  representatives  of  commercial  seed  houses  who  have 
Inspected  the  trial  fields  as  meeting  the  highest  standards  as  a winter  or 
storage  cabbage  type.  The  desired  type  is  combined  with  a high  degree  of 
resistance  to  yellows. 


he  has  selected  in  order  to  determine  their  relative  disease  re- 
sistance. A strain  has  thus  been  secured  which  combines  well 
the  desired  characters.  This  has  descended  from  a single  head 
which  Mr.  Hansche  selected  in  a field  of  Wisconsin  Hollander 
in  1916.  The  seed  plant  from  this  head  Avas  forced  in  the  green- 
house during  the  Avinter  of  1916-17  and  from  a feAv  seeds  thus 
secured  by  self  pollination  plants  AA’ere  groAAUi  for  trial  in  1917. 
OAving  to  the  late  maturity  of  the  seed  these  plants  were  forced 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


in  a cold  frame  apart  from  the  other  strain,  hence  they  could 
not  be  closely  compared  with  the  latter  as  to  disease-resistant 
quality.  They  made  an  excellent  showing  in  this  respect,  how- 
ever, and  also  maintained  well  the  round  head  and  short  stem  of 
the  parent  plant,  while,  considering  their  late  start,  they  ma- 
tured somewhat  earlier  than  the  other  Wisconsin  Hollander 
strains.  All  of  the  sound  heads  of  this  strain  were  saved  and 
set  out  for  seed  growing  in  an  isolated  plantation  in  1918.  Seed 
from  one  of  the  best  of  these  plants  was  saved  as  a separate  head 
strain  for  the  1919  trial  grounds,  the  balance  mixed  for  field 
use.  The  results  in  all  cases  were  highly  satisfactory  in  that 
along  with  a degree  of  disease  resistance  fully  equal  to  that  of 
the  older  strains  of  Wisconsin  Hollander,  these  plants  showed 
with  much  uniformity  the  desired  characters  for  which  the  par- 
ent head  was  selected — shorter  stem,  rounder  head,  and  earlier 
maturity.  (See  Fig.  3.)  In  these  respects  the  new  type  is  closely 
similar  to  the  original  Ferry  Hollander.  Under  the  conditions 
of  1919  the  field  crop  of  the  recent  selection  matured  nearly  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  older  type  of  Wisconsin  Hollander.  To 
distinguish  the  two  types,  the  new  one  will  hereafter  be  desig- 
nated as  the  Early  Wisconsin  Hollander  and  the  older  strain, 
now  in  general  use,  as  the  Late  Wisconsin  Hollander.  It  is  hoped 
that  commercial  growers  and  seed  dealers  who  may  use  these 
strains  will  cooperate  with  us  in  maintaining  them  independently 
since  they  represent  types  worthy  of  such  segregation.  Appar- 
ently one  or  the  other  of  these  types  will  meet  adequately  the 
needs  in  the  various  sections  where  the  Hollander  cabbage  is  now 
grown  in  a large  commercial  way.  In  order  to  provide  for  this, 
the  available  seed  of  the  Early  Wisconsin  Hollander  has  been 
sent  to  the  Puget  Sound  region  for  the  production  of  a seed  crop 
which  should  be  available  for  commercial  distribution  in  1921. 

RESISTANT  SELECTIONS  OF  OTHER  VARIETIES 

The  Hollander,  which  is  a winter  storage  or  shipping  cabbage, 
is  the  variety  of  chief  commercial  interest  in  Wisconsin.  With 
the  development  of  this  winter  cabbage  industry,  however,  has 
come  an  increasing  number  of  kraut  factories.  These  use  little 
or  no  Hollander  cabbage  as  a rule,  the  needs  of  this  industry  be- 
ing best  met  by  special  types  of  the  late  summer  or  “domestic” 
cabbages  of  the  Flat  Dutch  group.  Of  these  kraut  varieties  the 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


13 


one  in  most  favor  in  the  Racine  district — when  the  present  prob- 
lems were  outlined — was  the  Brunswick.  In  other  kraut-grow- 
ing sections  the  All  Seasons  is  generally  preferred.  Since  both 
of  these  are  rather  late  fall  varieties  the  All  Head  is  generally 
grown  in  addition  for  early  kraut  use  because  it  has  a reputa- 
tion for  sure  heading,  desired  kraut  quality,  and  matures  a 
week  or  more  in  advance  of  either  All  Seasons  or  Brunswick. 
Accordingly,  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  resistant  strains 
of  each  of  these  three  kraut  types  beginning  with  the  Bruns- 
wick. 

Wisconsin  Brunswick 

The  first  selections  were  made  in  a badly  diseased  field  in  1913. 
The  seed  from  which  this  field  was  grown  was  supplied  by  Mr. 
F.  W.  Gunther,  kraut  manufacturer  of  Racine,  and  was  imported 
from  Germany  by  him.  Trials  of  the  original  or  commercial 
strain  of  this  seed  made  in  1912  and  1913  as  reported  in  our 
earlier  publication^^  (pp.  34,  35)  showed  it  to  be  about  as  sus- 
ceptible to  yellows  as  the  average  commercial  Hollander  varie- 
ties and  this  accords  with  the  general  experience  of  Racine  cab- 
bage growers.  Seed  was  grown  from  two  of  these  selected  heads 
in  1914  and  tested  in  our  1915  plots.  The  results  showed  these 
selections  to  be  distinctly  superior  in  Fusarium  resistance  to  the 
parent  commercial  strains.  Fortunately  the  progeny  of  one 
head  proved  distinctly  better  than  the  other  and  to  be  of  good 
Brunswick  type.  Its  behavior  as  compared  with  the  non-resist- 
ant control  is  shown  in  Table  III.  Selections  of  heads  for  fur- 
ther seed  growing  were  made  from  this  one  head  strain.  It 
should  be  noted  that  1915  was  an  unusually  cool  summer  and 
that  consequently  the  yellows  disease  was  not  very  bad  even  in 
the  control  plants. 


Table  III. — ^Results  in  1915  with  the  Best  First  Generation  Selec- 
, TioN  OF  Brunswick  Cabbage. 


Strain 

Yellows 

Living 

Headed 

Selected  Brunswick  (XI-4-2) 

Per  cent 
18 
84 

Per  cent 
100 
85 

Per  cent 

95.0 

76.1 

Control  (Commercial  Hollander), 

” Jones  and  Gilman,  loc.  cit. 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


Purttier  trial  was  therefore  made  of  this  head  strain  (XI-4-2) 
in  1916  on  thoroughly  sick  soil.  Owing  to  the  warm  weather 
favorable  to  the  disease  this  season  they  underwent  an  especially 
severe  test.  Only  one  plant  out  of  45  of  these  Brunswick  heads 
was  seriously  infected  with  yellows  while  the  commercial  vari- 
ety planted  alongside  was  practically  destroyed  by  the  disease. 
The  evidence  from  the  trials  of  the  two  seasons  taken  in  combin- 
ation justified  the  conclusion  that  this  selection  represented  a 
sufficiently  resistant  type  of  Brunswick  to  warrant  its  perpetua- 
tion for  distribution  to  the  growers.  Several  of  the  most  de- 
sirable heads  were  therefore  selected  for  further  seed  grooving  in 
1917. 

Trials  of  Second  Generation  Brunswick  Selections  in  1917 

In  1916  seed  representing  the  second  generation  was  secured 
from  a number  of  the  heads  selected  in  1915  and  these  were 
tested  in  1917  under  their  respective  serial  numbers  with  the 
following  results.  This  1917  trial  was  on  the  same  soil  which 
had  been  proved  so  sick  in  1916  and  the  season  was  sufficiently 
favorable  again  for  the  Pusarium  to  give  a good  trial. 


Table  IV. — Results  with  Second  Generations  of  Brunswick  Selected 
IN  1915  AND  Tested  in  1917. 


Head  Strain 

[ Plants 

infected 

Plants  killed 
by  yellows 

No.  XI-6-12 

Per  cent 

17 

Per  cent 
4.2 

No.  XI-6-15 

22 

2.0 

No.  XI-6-13 

25 

5.8 

No.  XI-6-11 

25 

7.7 

No.  XI-6-10 

35 

7.5 

Commercial  Brunswick,  control 

80 

54.0 

A small  quantity  of  the  resistant  Brunswick  seed  was  also 
given  out  for  trial  by  growers -in  1917  and  fortunately  some  of 
these  plants  were  placed  in  a field  at  Union  Grove,  AVisconsin, 
where  the  soil  was  quite  ^‘sick.  ” A visit  to  this  field  in  Sep- 
tember showed  the  selected  strain  to  be  standing  up  almost  per- 
fectly while  commercial  strains  alongside  it  were  badly  affected 
by  yellows.  (See  Fig.  4).  In  1917  a small  amount  of  this  seed 
was  placed  with  other  state  experiment  stations  for  trial.  Sc 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


15 


far  as  we  know  only  one  sample  was  planted  on  Fusarium  sick 
soil.  This  was  placed  through  the  cooperation  of  Prof.  H.  S. 
Jackson  of  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  with  M.  Humpfer 
at  Hammond,  Indiana.  In  October,  Mr.  Humpfer  reported  that 
with  this  he  planted  10,800  square  feet,  or  about  one-quarter 
acre  of  badly  diseased  land.  It  gave  him  about  98  per  cent 
stand,  yielding  5 tons  of  cabbage.  On  one  side  of  this  he  had 
commercial  Copenhagen  Market  which  gave  only  25  per  cent  of 


FIG.  4.— RESISTANT  WISCONSIN  BRUNSWICK 

Cabbage  trials  on  Fusarium  sick  land  made  by  a farmer  in  1917.  One  row 
jf  Wisconsin  Brunswick  (resistant)  at  right  of  center  showing  complete  stand ; 
balance  of  field  on  the  right  was  Wisconsin  Hollander,  also  resistant;  re- 
mainder of  field  at  left  commercial  Hollander  (non-resistant)  where  the  loss 
was  due  partly  to  yellows  and  partly  to  black  leg. 


a stand  and  on  the  other,  commercial  Glory  of  Enkhuizen  which 
gave  50  per  cent  of  a stand.  He  tried  Wisconsin  Hollander  on  the 
same  field  and  found  that  this  and  the  Brunswick  showed  about 
equally  high  resistance,  the  Hollander  giving  a 95  per  cent 
stand  whereas  commercial  Hollander  alongside  gave  about  a 33 
per  cent  stand. 

While  the  results  to  date  have  not  in  general  shown  the  Bruns- 
wick strains  quite  equal  in  resistance  to  the  best  Wisconsin  Hol- 
lander strains,  the  trials  have  justified  the  conclusion  that  the 
best  selected  strain  deserves  commercial  distribution  and  the 


16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


seed  has  therefore  been  put  out  under  the  name  Wisconsin 
Brunswick. 

Trials  of  Wisconsin  Brunswick  in  1918  and  1919 

Trials  of  1918.  The  trials  of  Wisconsin  Brunswick  were  re- 
peated on  “sick’’  soil  at  Racine  in  1918  using  four  of  the  head 
strains  of  seed  grown  in  1917  with  the  encouraging  results  shown 
in  Table  V. 


Table  V. — Results  with  Third  Generation  of  Brunswick  Selected  in 
1916  AND  Tested  in  1918. 


strain 

P]  ants 
showing 
yellows 

Wi«!r*.nnsln  'Rrnnswir.lr  bp.ad  strain  No.  XT  7 — 1 

Per  cent 

0.0 

0.7 

0.7 

8.3 

69.9 

Wlsronj^in  Rrnn«winVr  hp.a.rl  strain  No.  XT  7 S 

Wisconsin  Brunswick  head  strain  No.  XI  7 4 

Winnonsin  Rnin.swipk  head  strain  No.  XT  7 8 

Commercial  Brunswick,  control 

Trials  of  1919.  Owing  to  the  severe  midsummer  heat  the 
trials  of  1919  were  unusually  severe.  In  1918  seed  had  been 
secured  from  only  one  new  head  strain  of  Brunswick,  XI-8-1. 
Therefore,  two  of  the  head  strains  from  which  seed  was  grown 
in  1917  were  included,  Xl-7-1,  which  had  proved  the  best  of 
those  tested  in  1918,  and  XI-7-10,  a strain  which  had  been  omit- 
ted through  lack  of  room  from  the  trials  of  1918.  Since  no  com- 
mercial Brunswick  of  reliable  character  was  available  for  con- 
trol purposes,  comparison  is  made  with  the  commercial  Hollan- 
der planted  in  the  trial  grounds. 


Table  VI. — Wisconsin  Brunswick  Trials,  1919. 


Head  strain 

Yellows 

Lived 

Headed 

Wisconsin  Brunswick  XT  8 1 

Per  cent 
54.8 

Per  cent 
96.7 

Percent 

23.9 

67.5 

Wisconsin  Brunswick  XI  7 1 

16.2 

97.6 

Wisconsin  Brunswick  XI— 7— 10 

55.2 

86.5 

64.2 

Control,  commercial  Hollander 

98.9 

9.3 

1 

7.6 

Since  the  evidence  is  clear  that  the  1918  strain,  XI-8-1,  was 
inferior  in  disease  resistance  to  both  of  the  1917  strains,  XI-7-1 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


17 


and  XI-7-10,  heads  for  further  seed  growing  were  saved  only 
from  the  latter. 

These  trials  have  shown  that  the  Wisconsin  Brunswick  which 
is  now  available  in  limited  quantities  for  commercial  use  com- 
bines very  well  the  type  of  the  commercial  Brunswick  with  ^ 
sufficiently  high  degree  of  disease  resistance  to  meet  practical 
needs.  Conferences  with  various  growers  have  shown,  however, 
that  while  the  Wisconsin  Brunswick  possesses  many  good  quali- 
ties both  the  commercial  and  the  selected  type  have  certain  char- 


FIG.  5.— TYPICAL  BRUNSWICK  HEAD 

Section  of  Wisconsin  Brunswick  cabbage.  Note  the  relatively  flat  head  and 
openness  of  spaces  between  the  leaves  of  this  and  the  other  kraut  type  (See 
Fig.  6)  as  compared  with  the  round,  dense,  hard  heads  of  the  Hollander  or 
storage  cabbage  type  (See  Pigs.  2 and  3).  The  characteristically  very  short 
stem  or  “core”  of  the  Brunsw’ick  is  also  illustrated  here.  This  commends 
it  to  the  kraut  manufacturers,  but  is  not  so  satisfactory  to  the  grower  inas- 
much as  it  is  associated  with  the  tendency  to  form  a reentrant  angle  at  the 
base  as  explained  in  the  text. 


acteristics  which  stand  in  the  way  of  their  general  acceptance 
for  commercial  kraut  growing.  Because  of  the  very  short  stem 
and  relatively  thin  flat  head  when  they  grow  very  large,  the  head 
tends  so  to  thicken  at  the  sides  as  to  form  a reentrant  angle  with 
the  stem.  The  result  is  that  the  heads  cannot  be  cut  from  the 
stem  at  harvest  so  easily  and  quickly  as  the  All  Seasons  and 
other  standard  kraut  types.  Since  it  was  considered  possible  to 
overcome  this  trouble  in  some  degree  at  least,  a number  of  heads 
which  possessed  this  reentrant  stem  in  the  minimum  degree  were 
selected  from  the  resistant  plants  in  the  1919  trial  field.  (See 
Fig.  5.)  These  have  been  stored  for  seed  growing  and  further 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


trial.  Since  this  will  be  a work  of  several  years  at  best  the  re- 
sistant Wisconsin  Brunswick  corresponding  to  the  commercial 
type  will  be  placed  in  commercial  distribution. 

AVisconsin  All  Seasons 

The  All  Seasons  belongs  to  the  same  group  of  mid-season  Flat 
Dutch  cabbage  as  the  Brunswick  but  it  has  a somewhat  longer 
stem  and  rounder  head.  Because  of  type,  quality  and  season 


it  has  become  the  standai'd  kraut  cabbage  and  is  more  widely 
used  than  any  other  single  variety  in  the  United  States.  (See 
Fig.  6.)  Although  the  needs  of  the  AVisconsin  growers  of  the 
R-iicine  district  seemed  fairly  w^ell  met  by  the  AVisconsin  Hol- 
lander and  Wisconsin  Brunswick,  these  two  varieties  did  not 
adequately  meet  the  national  situation.  This  fact  was  brought 
out  by  a survey  of  the  ki’aut  interests  of  the  United  States  gen- 
erally, undertaken  jointly  a few  years  ago  by  L.  L.  Harter  and 


FIG.  6. — 'WISCONSIN  ALL  SEASONS 


Section  of  typical  head  of  Wisconsin  All  Seasons  cabbage.  This  selection 
conforms  closely  in  type  to  the  standard  All  Seasons  of  the  American  seed 
trade  which  is  a favorite  variety  with  the  majority  of  kraut  growers.  A 
comparison  with  figures  2 and  3 shows  the  differences  between  the  kraut  and 
the  stoiage  types  as  explained  under  figure  5.  As  compared  with  the  Bruns- 
wick (Fig.  5)  the  All  Seasons  head  is  deeper  with  longer  stem  or  “core,” 
and  is  more  rounded  at  the  base. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


19 


the  senior  author  on  behalf  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, which  showed  that  the  second  tier  of  states,  extending 
from  Iowa  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  is  suffering  serious  loss  from 
the  Fusarium  disease  and  prefers  in  general  the  All  Seasons  for 
kraut  purposes.  This  is  preeminently  the  case  in  the  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio  districts. 

Since  our  experience  has  led  us  to  believe  that  it  is  possible 
through  selection  to  secure  a Fusarium-resistant  strain  from  any 
of  the  standard  cabbage  varieties  without  breaking  up  the  hor- 
ticultural type  with  which  one  is  dealing,  it  was  early  decided 
that  the  next  effort  should  be  directed  to  securing  a disease-re- 
sistant strain  of  All  Seasons.  Reference  was  made  in  our  ear- 
lier bulletin^^  to  the  fact  that  Manns  of  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station  suggested  the  possibility  of  overcoming  cabbage  yellows 
through  disease  resistance.  Through  correspondence  with  Pro- 
fessor Selby  of  the  Ohio  Station  we  learned  in  1914  that  S.  N. 
Green  of  the  horticultural  department  of  that  station  had  al- 
ready undertaken  selections  for  this  purpose.  Upon  request  of 
Professor  Selby,  Mr.  Green  kindly  sent  us  some  of  the  seed  of 
the  most  promising  strain  which  he  had  selected  from  heads  of 
All  Seasons  variety  as  grown  in  the  Clyde,  Ohio,  district,  and 
we  sent  some  Wisconsin  Hollander  seed  in  return.  This  was 
tested  in  our  1915  series,  alongside  the  Wisconsin  Hollander  and 
commercial  varieties,  and  corresponding  tests  were  made  the 
same  year  near  Clyde,  Ohio,  by  J.  G.  Humbert  of  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station,  department  of  botany.  The  outcome  showed 
that  this  selection  of  All  Seasons  had  little  if  any  greater  dis- 
ease resistance  than  the  commercial  varieties.  Prof.  W.  J. 
Green  of  the  Ohio  Station  recently  advised  the  senior  author 
that  S.  N.  Green  was  no  longer  connected  with  their  station  and 
that  the  selections  had  not  been  continued.  Although  most  of 
the  plants  in  this  strain  of  All  Seasons  in  1915  were  diseased, 
a few  appeared  free  from  Fusarium  and  with  the  assistance  of 
certain  experienced  kraut  growers  who  inspected  the  field,  sev- 
eral of  the  most  promising  of  these  heads  were  selected  for  seed 
growing.  In  order  to  save  time  some  of  these  were  sent  to  C. 
W.  Edgerton  of  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station  for  winter 
seed  growing.  Seed  from  one  of  these  (XXV-6-3)  was  re- 
turned in  the  spring  of  19 1 G in  time  to  be  included  in  the  trial 
grounds  that  year. 


“Jones  and  Gilman,  loc.  cit. 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


Trials  op  1916  an^>  1917 

The  disease  was  very  severe  on  the  trial  ground  in  1916  so  that 
of  the  55  selected  All  Seasons  plants  set  out  only  six  escaped  in- 
fection, whereas  of  the  selected  Brunswick  alongside  only  one 
plant  of  45  was  infected.  The  six  heads  which  escaped  infection 
were  saved  for  seed  growing  and  again,  in  order  to  save  time, 
two  of  the  most  promising  of  these  were  selected  for  winter- 
forcing.  We  were  favored  by  the  cooperation  of  Prof.  J.  B. 
Norton  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  he  secured  seed 
from  these  in  the  greenhouse  at  Washington  and  returned  to  us 
in  the  spring  of  1917  as  follows:  head  strains  XXV-7-2  and 
XXV-7-8,  each  grown  from  a single  selfed  plant,  and  strain 
XXV-7-2  X 8 which  was  the  result  of  the  crossing  of  these  two. 
In  addition,  we  had  for  inclusion  in  the  1917  trial  grounds  some 
M head  strains  of  the  first  generation  selections  (XXV-6-3 — 
XXV-6-23)  grown  at  Madison  in  1916  from  heads  saved  in 
1915.  These,  therefore,  represented  our  first  general  selections, 
comparable  to  those  tested  in  1916.  Furthermore,  these  had 
been  grown  in  mixed  plantation.  The  comparative  results  as 
shown  in  the  following  table  are  unusually  interesting  since 
they  illustrate  clearly  the  advantage  at  this  stage  in  the  work 
of  selfing  or  close  pollination  as  compared  with  growing  iu 
mixed  plantation. 


Table  VII. — Results  from  Trials  of  Selected  All  Seasons  Head 


Strains  in  : 

1917.* 

Strain  No. 

Pollination 

Yellows 

Killed  by 
yellows 

XXV  7-2 

selfed 

Per  cent 

5 

Per  cent 
0 

XXV  7 8 

4 1 

0 

XXV  7 2\8 

crossed 

2 

0 

XXV  6 4 

mixed 

28  i 

8 

XXV  6 5 

39  i 

10 

XXV  6 6 

37 

0 

XXV-6  9 

35  1 

4 

XXV  6 10 

40  ! 

6.9 

XXV  6-11 

39  i 

4 

XXV  6 12 

43 

6.2 

XXV  6 14 

21 

0 

XXV  6 15 

40 

5 

XXV  6 16 

39 

2 

XXV  6 17 

33 

6.4 

XXV  6 21 

51.6 

7.3 

XXV  6-22 

1 

29 

4 

XXV-6  23 

1 

i 

2.4 

Commercial  All  Seasons  Control) 

1 80 

1 

46 

Figure  7 shows  the  appearance  of  these  plants  in  the  field. 


FuSAKiUM  liEaiSTANT  CABBAGE 


21 


The  showing  made  by  all  three  strains  of  second  generation 
seed  which  Professor  Norton  had  secured  was  thus  very  encour- 
aging indeed,  both  by  contrast  with  the  1916-grown  first  genera- 
tion strains  and  with  the  commercial.  (See  Fig.  7.)  Thus  where 
the  commercial  strain  showed  80  per  cent  of  Fusarium  infection 
and  one  of  the  best  first  generation  strains,  XXV-6-23,  showed 
16  per  cent,  Norton’s  hybrid  XXV-7-2  x 8 showed  only  2 per 
cent,  and  the  selfed  strains  scarcely  more.  This  was  a distinctly 


FIG.  7.— ROW  OF  THE  MOTHER  HEADS  OF  WISCONSIN  ALL  SEASONS 

Trial  grounds  of  resistant  All  Seasons,  1917.  Soil  very  sick,  see  Table  VII. 
Commercial  All  Seasons  in  center  practically  destroyed  by  yellows.  Second 
generation  selections,  XXV-7-2  and  XXV-T-^,  in  the  next  two  rows  at  the 
right.  Of  these  XXV-7-2  was  the  best  type  and  from  it  the  finest  heads  were 
selected  for  propagation  as  Wisconsin  All  Seasons.  The  ronaining  rows 
at  the  right  are  the  first  generation  selections  of  the  same  variety,  which, 
proving  less  desirable,  were  discarded. 


better  showing  than  was  made  in  the  same  parallel  trials  the 
same  season  with  the  resistant  Brunswick  selections  and  nearly 
as  good  as  the  best  Wisconsin  Hollander.  It  seemed  clear, 
therefore,  that  we  had  at  least  three  highly  resistant  strains  of 
All  Seasons  from  which  to  select  for  further  increase.  All  were 
of  good  appearance  but  upon  critical  comparison,  in  which  wc 
had  the  advice  of  L.  D.  Coulter,  cabbage  expert  of  the  D.  M. 
Ferry  Co.,  strain  XXV-7-2  was  considered  to  represent  the 
best  and  most  uniform  type.  Our  own  selections  for  further 
seed  growing  were  restricted  to  this  strain. 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


Further  trials  and  selections  have  been  continued  with  this 
strain  of  All  Seasons  during  1918  and  1919.  The  1918  trials 
showed  in  this  resistant  strain  (XXV-7-2)  only  slightly  over 
1 per  cent  of  yellows  and  almost  a full  stand  of  heading  plants 
(over  98  per  cent)  whereas  the  non-resistant  control  showed 
over  60  per  cent  of  yellows  and  only  about  15  per  cent  heading. 
In  1919,  when  the  disease  was  severe  owing  to  the  high  summer 
temperature,  this  strain  made  a very  good  showing,  and  in  gen- 
eral proved  more  resistant  than  the  best  Wisconsin  Hollander. 
Meanwhile,  sufficient  seed  has  been  producd  from  the  1917  and 
1918  selections  to  enable  the  Wisconsin  cabbage  growers’  commit- 
tee to  inaugurate  seed  growing  on  a commercial  scale.  As  will 
be  explained  later,  arrangements  have  been  made  by  which  seed 
growing  of  the  resistant  All  Seasons  is  also  being  carried  on  in 
a trial  way  under  supervision  in  the  Long  Island  and  Puget 
Sound  sections  in  addition  to  what  is  being  grown  in  Wisconsin. 
The  first  of  this  seed  will  be  ready  for  distribution  in  the  autumn 
of  1920  under  the  name  of  Wisconsin  All  Seasons. 

Selections  of  Other  Varieties 

Maryland  Flat  Dutch.  Early  in  our  work  upon  the  Wiscon- 
sin Hollander  we  learned  that  Close  and  White^^  of  the  Mary- 
land Experiment  Station  had  been  noting  a difference  in  the 
susceptibility  of  cabbage  varieties  to  what  they  termed  black  rot ; 
and  upon  our  request  in  1913  Professor  White  sent  us  a sample 
of  a strain  of  Late  Plat  Dutch  which  they  had  selected  and 
grown  for  such  rot  resistance.  Owing  to  its  origin  we  have 
termed  this  the  Maryland  Plat  Dutch.  This  Maryland  strain 
proved  highly  resistant  to  yellows  in  our  1914  trials.  (See  Fig. 
8.)  Several  heads  were  saved  from  this  1914  trial  and  seed  was 
grown  from  some  of  them  in  1915. 

Since  the  type  did  not  interest  the  Wisconsin  growers  who  in- 
spected this  field  we  did  nothing  more  with  the  Maryland  strain 
until  1919.  Learning  from  recent  conferences  with  kraut  pack- 
ers of  other  states  that  they  and  some  other  commercial  cabbage 
interests  have  need  for  a domestic  variety  somwhat  later  in  ma- 
turing than  the  All  Seasons  we  decided  to  include  some  of  these 
head  strains  (XXIV-5-1,  XXIV-5-2,  XXIV-5-3,  XXIV-5-4) 


“ Close,  C.  P.  and  White,  T.  H.  Cabbage  experiments  and  culture.  Md. 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  133.  1909. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage  28 

in  our  trial  plantings  in  1919.  They  proved  to  be  fairly  resis- 
tant, being  in  this  respect  about  in  the  class  with  the  Wisconsin 
Brunswick  but  not  equal  to  the  better  strains  of  Wisconsin  All 
Seasons  or  Wisconsin  Hollander.  The  type  did  not  prove  alto- 
gether satisfactory.  Probably  because  not  well  suited  to  Wis- 
consin climatic  conditions,  especially  under  the  high  summer 
temperature  of  1919,  it  did  not  form  as  large  a percentage  of 
firm  heads  as  the  other  domestic  varieties  under  trial.  Further 
selections  of  the  best  head  types  were  made  from  the  more  prom- 


FIG.  8. — FUSARIUM-RESISTANT  MARYLAND  PLAT  DUTCH 

Trial  of  Maryland  Flat  Dutch,  1914.  Three  rows  at  right  showing  a prac- 
tically full  stand  are  of  this  variety ; the  next  three  rows  at  the  left  are 
commercial  Houser,  slightly  resistant ; the  next  three  rows,  with  only  one 
plant  still  alive,  are  commercial  Hollander.  Several  of  the  best  heads  of  this 
Flat  Dutch  were  saved  for  seed  growing  in  1915  and  gave  us  the  head  strains 
XXIV-5-3  and  XXIV-5-4  referred  to  in  the  text. 

ising  strains,  XXIV-5-3  and  XXIV-5-4,  and  further  selection 
will  be  made  from  these.  Professor  White  advises  us  that  he 
has  continued  to  propagate  this  strain  and  that  it  is  in  success- 
ful use  in  Maryland. 

All  Head  Early.  The  kraut  packers  with  whom  we  have 
conferred  pronounce  this  the  favorite  variety  for  early  kraut 
purposes.  It  belongs  to  the  early  Flat  Dutch  group  and  is  said 
to  be  the  best  cabbage  of  its  type  ever  produced  in  Long  Island 
where  it  was  developed  by  a iMr.  Strang  a generation  ago.^^  It 


Allen,  C.  L.  Cabbage,  caulirtowcr  and  allied  vegetable.s.  1915. 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


has  a reputation  for  uniformity,  tenderness,  and  sureness  of 
heading  which  make  it  the  most  promising  variety  of  the  early 
group  from  which  to  undertake  selections  for  disease  resistance. 
While  for  kraut  purposes  it  is  similar  to  the  All  Seasons,  it  is 
somewhat  earlier  in  maturing,  thus  prolonging  the  packing  sea- 
son. A considerable  acreage  of  this  variety  was  grown  in  1919 
under  contract  with  the  John  Meeter  & Sons  Kraut  Co.  in  the 

western  part  of  Racine  and 
Kenosha  Counties.  Through 
the  cooperation  of  Martin 
Meeter  we  located  a field  of 
All  Head  Early  where  the 
yellows  was  very  bad  (See 
Fig.  9)  and  selected  for  seed 
growing  some  twenty  heads 
of  good  type,  apparently  dis- 
ease-free. It  is  hoped  that 
the  seed  secured  from  these 
may  be  used  for  further  trial 
and  selection. 

Glory  of  Enkhuizen.  This 
is  grown  especially  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  east  as 
a standard  mid-season  kraut 
variety  and  its  use  is  appar- 
ently increasing  in  the 
northern  Mississippi  Valley. 
Some  of  this  had  been 
planted  in  the  same  ‘"sick” 
field  with  the  All  Head  and 
at  least  77  per  cent  of  the 
plants  were  killed  and  many  of  the  rest  showed  yellows  (Fig. 
9).  Advantage  wms  taken  of  the  opportunity  to  select  heads 
for  seed  growing  in  1920.  It  is  hoped  that  a disease-resistant 
strain  of  this,  also,  may  ultimately  be  secured. 

Copenhagen  Market.  This  is  an  early  cabbage  of  excellent 
quality  which  has  recently  come  into  much  favor  for  market 
garden  uses  and  in  certain  localities  is  grown  for  kraut.  One 
of  the  important  centers  of  its  culture  is  Muscatine,  Iowa. 


MG.  9.— ORIGINAL,  SELECTIONS  OP 
ALL  HEAD  EARLY  AND  GLORY  OP 
ENKHUIZEN 

Field  of  commercial  All  Head  Early  and 
Glory  ^f  Enkhuizen  cabbage  practically 
destroyed  by  yellows,  at  Union  Grove, 
Wis.,  in  1919.  Typical  seed  heads  were 
selected  from  the  few  remaining  resistant 
plants  for  seed  production  in  1920. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


25 


Since  the  yellows  is  serious  there  Drs.  I.  E.  Melhus  and  J.  C. 
Gilman  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  have  been  working  some 
two  years  to  secure  a resistant  strain  of  this  variety,  and 
trials  made  in  our  fields  in  1919  with  some  of  the  seed  which 
they  sent  for  this  purpose,  showed  distinct  progress  toward  this 
end  with  at  least  two  strains.  Inasmuch  as  neither  of  these 
Iowa  strains  conformed  exactly  to  the  standard  commercial  type 
\ve  made  additional  selections  from  a ‘ ‘ sick  ’ ^ field  of  Copenhagen 
Market  near  Union  Grove,  Wisconsin,  in  the  autumn  of  1919. 
It  may  be  expected  that  ultimately  either  the  Iowa  or  Wiscon- 
sin selection  or  both  may  furnish  the  desired  type  combined 
with  disease  resistance. 

PRESENT  STATUS  SUMMARIZED 

It  is  evident  that  individual  variation  in  degree  of  suscepti- 
bility or  resistance  to  Fusarium  has  been  found  to  occur  with 
every  variety  of  cabbage  tested  on  ‘‘yellows  sick”  soil.  Experi- 
ence to  date  justifies  our  confidence  that  this  resistance  is  due 
to  heritable  differences  and  that,  therefore,  through  the  selec- 
tion of  such  resistant  heads  from  “sick”  soil,  a Fusarium-resist- 
ant  strain  may  be  secured  of  any  of  the  standard  cabbage  varieties 
Our  experience  indicates  moreover,  that  through  careful  and 
repeated  selection  this  resistance  may  be  combined  with  any  of 
the  other  desired  qualities  of  the  standard  commercial  varieties, 
such  as  season  of  maturity,  length  of  stem,  tenderness  of  leaf, 
shape  and  compactness  of  head.  In  other  words,  resistance  does 
not  seem  to  be  incompatible  with  any  other  of  the  commonly 
recognized  variables  of  the  cabbage.  All  our  experience  indi- 
cates that  Tisdale’s  conclusions  relative  to  the  flax  wilU®  hold 
true  for  the  cabbage,  that  resistance  is  probably  determined  by 
multiple  factors.  The  degree  of  resistance  is,  therefore,  due  to 
the  combination  of  these  and  in  all  cases  in  our  experience  it  is 
partial  or  relative,  not  absolute.  Moreover,  this  explanation  is 
consistent  with  our  experience  that  after  proceeding  to  a certain 
stage  with  our  present  methods  of  selection  little  or  no  further 
progress  as  to  disease  resistance  is  made.  This  is  also  consistent 
with  our  general  experience  that  the  best  results  have  in  each 
case  been  secured  through  growing  a selected  head  in  isolation 


Tisdale,  W.  H.  loc.  cit. 


26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


and  thus  securing  seed  through  self-pollination,  but  that  when 
the  benefits  were  once  secured  in  this  way  with  our  best  selec- 
tions mass  culture  has  been  followed  to  advantage. 

Our  plan  of  procedure,  justified  alike  by  theory  and  practice, 
is  as  follows.  After  securing  a strain  showing  a satisfactory 
degree  of  resistance,  combined  with  the  other  desired  charac- 
teristics, we  release  it  for  commercial  distribution.  There- 
after, our  interest  is  primarily  confined  to  such  cooperation  as 
is  required  for  the  maintenance  of  these  essential  standards. 
To  this  end  we  continue  to  grow  each  year  a few  hundred  plants 
of  each  of  these  types  in  trial  rows  on  soil  that  is  “sick,”  i.  e. 
thoroughly  infested  with  the  cabbage  Fusarium.  From  these 
plants  further  selections  are  made  with  the  aim  of  maintaining 
the  best  standards  both  as  to  type  and  disease  resistance.  Of 
course,  there  is  opportunity  for  minor  gains  in  this  way,  but 
our  experience  has  not  indicated  that  much  improvement  is  to  be 
expected  in  this  direction.  The  surplus  seed  thus  obtained  is 
placed  in  hands  of  the  local  cabbage  growers  ’ committee  for  com- 
mercial increase  in  such  manner  as  will  best  maintain  general 
standards  of  excellence. 

All  our  experience  has  shown  that  in  seasons  when  high  soil 
temperatures — especially  during  July — favor  the  development 
of  yellows  there  will  be  a considerable  percentage  of  the  plants 
even  in  the  most  resistant  of  these  strains  which  shows  evidence 
of  incipient  yellows.  Most  of  these  proceed  with  their  develop- 
ment to  full  maturity  and  form  good  heads  so  that  the  commer- 
cial loss  is  rarely  large  even  in  the  worst  cases.  While  the 
amount  of  the  disease  varies  considerably  with  other  factors 
such  as  soil  and  drainage,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  resistant 
character  of  the  selected  strains  breaks  down  under  any  of  these 
conditions  except  in  the  young  seedling  stage.  The  studies  of 
W.  B.  Tisdale^®  have  shown  that  seedlings  of  the  resistant  strains 
grown  in  sick  soil  at  a temperature  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  disease  succumb  almost  as  readily  as  those  of  sus- 
ceptible strains.  The  plants,  however,  acquire  a high  degree  of 
resistance  after  a few  weeks  of  growth.  In  our  experimental 
trials  we  have  always  aimed  to  grow  the  seedlings  on  healthy 
soil,  although  under  Wisconsin  conditions  the  temperature  is 


Tisdale,  W.  B.  Influence  of  soil  temperature  and  soil  moisture  on  the 
occurience  of  yellows  in  cabbage  seedlings.  In  manuscript. 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


27 


usually  too  low  for  infection  to  occur  while  seedlings  are  in  this 
susceptible  period.  In  certain  sections  of  the  country,  however, 
cabbage  seed  is  sown  at  a time  when  the  soil  temperature  is  near 
the  optimum  for  infection  by  Fusarium  conglutinans.  For  best 
success,  therefore,  it  is  essential  to  make  the  seed  bed  on  healthy 
soil.  Trials  have  been  made  of  one  or  more  of  these  resistant 
strains  in  so  many  other  states  that  we  feel  confident  in  our  con- 
clusion that  the  resistant  qualities  will  be  maintained  without 
serious  impairment  anywhere  that  the  cabbage  will  succeed. 

If  these  conclusions  are  correct,  it  would  seem,  therefore,  that 
the  only  serious  condition  yet  to  be  met  is  that  of  the  commercial 
production  and  distribution  of  the  different  varieties  of  resis- 
tant seed  suited  to  local  needs. 

Commercial  Production  and  Distribution  op  Resistant  Seed 

As  soon  as  the  merits  of  the  "Wisconsin  Hollander  were  estab- 
lished the  question  arose  as  to  how  best  to  insure  the  produc- 
tion and  distribution  of  an  adequate  supply  of  reliable  seed  un- 
der commercial  conditions.  At  the  outset  the  aim  was  simply 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  Wisconsin  cabbage  growers,  especially 
in  the  Fusarium-infested  regions  of  the  southeastern  counties. 
This  was  done  by  the  selection,  at  a meeting  of  the  leading  grow- 
ers of  this  section,  of  a committee  of  five  men,^^  all  experienced 
in  handling  cabbage.  To  them  was  entrusted  the  responsibility 
for  leadership  in  growing  and  distributing  the  seed.  To  this 
committee  we  turned  over  enough  mother  seed  of  the  best  resis- 
tant Wisconsin  Hollander  to  inaugurate  their  undertaking,  and 
we  have  since  continued  to  cooperate  with  them  by  supplying 
them  with  any  improved  strains  as  these  have  been  secured  and 
through  assistance  in  selecting  mother  heads  for  their  seed  grow- 
ing. (See  Fig.  10.)  Through  this  committee  somewhat 
over  100  pounds  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  seed  was  grown  and 
distributed  in  1917  and  this  was  increased  to  800  pounds  in 
1918.  Meanwhile  local  growers  have  been  encouraged  to  save 
for  home  seed  growing  the  best  heads  from  their  own  fields,  es- 
pecially where  the  soil  is  “sick”  enough  to  insure  opportunity 

The  membership  of  this  committee  is  as  follows : W.  J.  Hansche,  A.  J. 

Piper,  and  S.  B,  Walker  of  Racine ; Henry  Broesch  and  W.  Thompson  of 
Kenosha ; W.  J.  Miller  of  Somers.  W.  J.  Hansche  was  chosen  chairman 
and  inquiries  as  to  available  seed  should  be  addressed  to  him  (W.  J. 
Hansche,  R.  P.  D.  4,  Racine,  Wisconsin). 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


for  selecting  especially  resistant  plants,  ’in  these  ways  the  lo- 
cal needs  have  been  fairly  well  met.  The  demand  has,  however, 
continued  to  increase  from  other  parts  of  Wisconsin  and  from 
other  states.  It  was  foreseen  that  this  would  soon  lead  to  the 
introduction  by  commercial  firms  of  seed  grown  elsewhere  under 
the  regular  contract  method.  The  seed  trade  secures  most  of  its 
cabbage  seed  in  this  way  from  either  of  three  sources.  Long  Is- 
l^xid,  the  Puget  Sound  region  in  Washington,  or  Europe,  e» 


PIG.  10.— ^VISCONSIN  HOLLANDER  SEED  HEADS 

A farmer’s  plantation  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  seed  heads  in  early  spring, 
1916.  These  were  especially  selected  from  “sick”  soil  in  the  fall  of  1915,  kept 
in  a cool  storage  house  over  winter,  and  reset  into  the  field  for  seed  produc- 
tion in  1916.  Grown  by  Henry  Broesch,  Kenosha,  Wisconsin. 

pecially  Denmark  and  Holland.  Since  cabbage  seed  can  be  se- 
cured from  these  regions  under  contract  more  cheaply  than  it 
can  be  grown  in  Wisconsin  it  is  evident  that  seed  growing  in 
Wisconsin  on  a permanent  commercial  scale  can  be  encouraged 
only  in  case  this  method  is  essential  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  disease-resistant  quality  in  the  seed.  If  it  is  demonstrated 
that  Wisconsin  grown  seed  is  distinctly  superior,  it  will  com- 
mand a sufficiently  higher  price  to  keep  it  on  the  market,  oth- 
erwise the  cheaper  contract  grown  seed  will  ultimately  replace 
it.  Experiments  were,  therefore,  inaugurated  several  years  ago 
to  determine  the  facts  as  to  this  matter.  The  most  reliable 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


29 


method  followed  by  commercial  seedsmen  is  to  furnish  the  con- 
tract grower  with  the  mother  seed,  this  mother  seed  being  se- 
cured each  year  from  reliable  sources.  The  essential  question 
is,  therefore,  as  follows:  If  resistant  Wisconsin  grown  mother 

seed  is  placed  for  one  generation  in  another  region  on  non-in- 
fested  soil,  and  a seed  crop  is  thus  secured  without  further  se- 
lection, will  such  seed  have  lost  appreciably  in  its  disease  re- 
sistant character? 

The  first  trials  for  determining  this  were  undertaken  in  the 
spring  of  1915.  Seed  of  one  of  the  head  strains  of  Wisconsin 
Hollander  was  sent  to  the  Washington  State  Experiment  Station 
located  at  Puyallup,^®  a duplicate  sample  of  the  same  lot  of  seed 
being  retained  for  later  comparative  trial.  The  seed  developed 
from  this  in  Washington  was  returned  to  us  in  the  autumn  of 

1917  and  introduced  into  our  1918  trial  field.  In  addition  a 
commercial  firm  secured  in  1915  some  Wisconsin  Hollander  seed 
which  was  placed  under  contract  with  a Puget  Sound  seed 
grower  in  1916-17.  This  firm  supplied  us  with  a sample  of 
their  western  grown  seed  for  the  trial.  These  two  samples  were 
placed  on  ‘ ‘ sick  ’ ’ soil  along  with  the  other  strains  under  trial  in 

1918  with  the  following  results. 

Table  VIII. — Summary  of  1918  Trials  Comparing  Western  Grown 
Seed  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  with  Home  Grown. 


Seed  strain  under  trial 


Amount 

yellows 


Best  strain  Wisconsin  Hollander  seed  grown  in  1913  (Villa— 25) 

Average  5 selections  made  from  progeny  of  this  in  1916 

Average  17  selections  made  from  general  fields  W,  H.  in  1916  

Puyallup  grown  seed,  Wisconsin  Hollander  i Villa— 15) 

Sample  of  “mother  seed”  strain  sent  to  Puyallup  in  1915  for  seed  growing 

(VIIIa-15) 

Commercial  seedsman’s  Puget  Sound  grown  seed  of  Wisconsin  Hollander.. . 
Control:  Hollander  seed  commercially  imported 


Per  cent 
0.9 
0.0 
2.0 

3.1 


0.0 

7.0 

84.6 


Trials  of  the  same  lot  of  commercial  seedsman’s  grown  Wis- 
consin Hollander  were  repeated  in  two  plots  at  Racine  in  1919. 
The  results  secured  were  as  follows: 


^•This  seed  was  grown  at  Puyallup  under  the  supervision  of  Director 
W.  A.  Linklater  and  Prof.  J.  L.  Stahl. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


Table  IX. — Summary  of  1919  Trials  Comparing  Western  Grown  Seed 
OF  Wisconsin  Hollander  with  Home  Grown 


Location 
of  plot 

Strain  of  cabbag-e 

Per  cent 
.yellow 

Per  cent 
killed  by 
yellows 

Per  cent 
living 

Per  cent 
headed 

Average  4 strains  of  Wisconsin 
grown  Wisconsin  Hollander 

40.6 

3.6 

94.1 

70.8 

Drum- 

mond 

plot 

Western  grown  Wisconsin  Hol- 
lander  

34.4 

7.2 

89.6 

63.2 

Commercial  Hollander 

98.9 

85.9 

9.3 

7.6 

Average  4 strains  of  Wisconsin 
grown  Wisconsin  Hollander 

75  4 

11.9 

85.3 

49.6 

Broesch 

plot 

Western  grown  Wisconsin  Hol- 
lander  

61.6 

16.0 

80.0 

51.2 

Commercial  Hollander 

100.0 

98.0 

1.0 

1.0 

In  1919  the  disease  was  severe  and  any  sign  of  yellows  on  the 
plants  was  recorded.  Thus  a comparatively  high  percentage  of 
disease  is  shown  in  column  1 even  for  the  resistant  strains. 
This  condition  usually  occurs  in  a warm  season  like  1919,  but, 
as  previously  noted,  most  of  the  resistant  plants  are  scarcely 
checked  by  this  slight  attack  while  a large  percentage  of  the 
commercial  strain,  when  infected,  dies  before  the  end  of  the 
season.  The  percentage  of  plants  killed  by  yellows  and  the  per- 
centage heading  are  therefore  the  best  criteria  for  comparing 
the  various  strains. 

From  both  the  1918  and  1919  figures  it  is  evident  that  all  of 
these  strains  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  gave  fairly  good  results 
as  to  Fusarium  resistance.  The  1918  results  are  the  more  sig- 
nificant and  they  show  quite  clearly  that  under  the  conditions 
of  that  trial  the  western  grown  seed  was  not  quite  so  resistant 
as  that  grown  in  Wisconsin.  Even  in  1918,  however,  the  west- 
ern grown  seed  made  a satisfactory  showing  and  in  the  1919 
trial  it  proved  practically  equal  to  the  average  run  of  Wiscon- 
sin Hollander.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  both  seasons  the 
trial  was  made  on  ' ‘ sicker  ’ ’ soil  than  will  commonly  be  used  for 
commercial  cabbage  culture  and  therefore  that  the  differences 
are  more  pronounced  than  would  be  evident  in  general  field 
usage.  Considering,  therefore,  the  commercial  advantages  of 
growing  contract  seed  in  the  intensive  seed-growing  districts  \vc 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


31 


are  approving  this  method  with  certain  reservations  aiming  to 
reduce  the  dangers  inevitably  inherent  in  the  procedure. 

The  first  of  these  dangers  results  from  the  fact  that  it  seems 
inevitable  that  there  is  in  all  these  resistant  cabbage  strains  a 
tendency  to  progressive  reversion  with  a consequent  loss  in  dis- 
ease resistance  which  can  only  be  met  by  continued  selection 
from  plants  grown  on  ^ ‘ sick  ’ ’ soil.  The  commercial  seedsman  who 
ignorantly  or  for  other  reasons  neglects  to  recognize  this  prin- 
ciple may  therefore  fail  to  keep  his  strain  up  to  standard. 
There  is  also  always  the  possibility  of  seed  admixture  and  of 
cross  pollination  from  adjacent  seed  fields,  both  of  which  will 
require  greater  attention  from  the  seedsmen  and  contract  grow- 
ers with  such  a strain  as  this  than  with  the  less  specialized  types. 

To  meet  the  situation  with  the  Wisconsin  Hollander  we  have 
continued  to  urge  Wisconsin  cabbage  growers  who  have  espe- 
cially ‘‘sick”  soil,  and  who  have  already  learned  how  to  select 
heads  from  their  own  fields  for  seed  growing,  to  continue  this 
practice.  This  will  insure  them  at  least  enough  seed  for  their 
own  use  and  in  certain  cases  they  will  have  a surplus  to  sell  to 
their  neighbors  or  to  seedsmen.  Certain  commercial  seedsmen 
are  already  arranging  to  secure  their  ‘ ‘ mother  seed  ’ ’ of  resistant 
strains  from  heads  carefully  selected  from  “sick”  soil  with  re- 
gard both  to  disease  resistance  and  type.  We  shall  continue  to 
cooperate  with  both  local  growers  and  seedsmen  in  the  establish- 
ment of  these  practices  on  a sound  basis. 

With  the  kraut  varieties  it  is  more  difficult  for  the  ordinary 
Wisconsin  grower  to  succeed  in  seed  growing.  One  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  earliness  of  maturity  causes  a much  greater  loss 
of  heads  during  winter  storage.  The  chief  initial  requests  for 
this  seed  moreover  have  come  not  from  the  growers  directly  but 
from  the  kraut  packers  who,  in  general,  purchase  and  distribute 
to  the  farmers  the  seed  from  which  their  cabbage  is  to  be  grown 
under  contract.  Most  of  the  kraut  manufacturers  of  the  coun- 
try are  members  of  the  National  Kraut  Packers’  Association. 
Accordingly  an  arrangement  has  been  made  with  this  Associa- 
tion by  v/hich  this  Experiment  Station  and  the  Federal  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  have  cooperated  for  the  growing  of  resistant 
kraut  seed.  In  this  way  a considerable  quantity  of  Wisconsin 
All  Seasons  and  some  Wisconsin  Brunswick  will  be  available  for 
distribution  in  1921.  Efforts  will  be  made  so  to  place  this  as 
to  insure  the  use  of  as  much  of  it  as  possible  on  “cabbage  sick” 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


soil  and  so  to  provide  as  to  insure  the  production  of  an  adequate 
crop  of  seed  annually  hereafter. 

It  is  believed  that  through  the  state  and  national  institutions 
proceeding  thus  in  cooperation  with  the  Wisconsin  cabbage 
growers’  committee,  with  the  National  Kraut  Packers’  Associa.- 
tion,  and  with  such  of  the  seed  firms  as  are  undertaking  to 
handle  the  resistant  seed,  it  will  be  possible  to  place  the  produc- 
tion and  distribution  of  this  seed  upon  a permanently  reliable 
commercial  basis.  Evidence  has  already  come  to  hand,  how- 
ever, that  along  with  this  legitimate  trade  development  there 
will  be  some  confusion  through  the  offering  of  so-called  disease- 
resistant  seed  of  unknown  origin  by  ignorant  or  unreliable  deal- 
ers. Probably  this  is  not  a matter  which  need  mislead  any  in- 
telligent cabbage  seed  dealer  or  grower.  In  any  case,  it  will  be 
greatly  minimized  if  all  reliable  dealers  offering  these  Wisconsin 
strains  of  resistant  seed  will  use  the  names  herein  given  to  them 
and  will  so  state  the  source  of  their  seed  supply  as  to  make  clear 
the  essential  facts  as  to  its  origin  or  history. 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

1.  The  disease  known  as  cabbage  yellows,  caused  by  the  soil 
parasite  Fusarium  conglutinans,  is  widely  distributed  and  seri- 
ously destructive  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Once  introduced,  it  persists  indefinitely  in  the  soil  and 
there  is  no  known  method  of  control  except  through  the  use  of 
disease-resistant  strains. 

3.  It  has  been  found  that  of  the  commercial  varieties  the 

Volga  is  the  most  highly  resistant  and  the  Houser  is  somewhat 
resistaut,  but  neither  of  these  varieties  meets  important  com- 
mercial needs.  ' ; 

4.  The  chief  commercial  cabbage  industry  in  the  sections 
where  the  yellows  disease  occurs  is  concerned  with  growing 
either  a winter  storage  or  shipping  crop  or  a mid-season  or  au- 

* tumn  crop  for  kraut  manufacture.  To  a lesser  degree  there  is 
need  for  truck  types. 

5.  Experience  justifies  the  belief  that  these  several  needs  can 
all  be  met  by  the  selection  of  Pusarium-resistant  strains  from 
the  standard  commercial  varieties  now  in  use  which  are  best 
adapted  to  these  various  purposes. 

6.  In  undertaking  such  selection  our  first  success  was  attained 
with  the  standard  winter  storage  variety,  Hollander  or  Danish 


Fusarium  Resistant  Cabbage 


33 


Ball  Head.  From  this  was  developed  the  resistant  strain  known 
as  Wisconsin  Hollander.  Since  experience  showed  that  an  ear- 
lier strain  of  this  was  needed,  further  selection  was  made  and  a 
resistant  strain  secured  which  combines  with  earlier  maturity  a 
rounder  head  and  shorter  stem.  This  has  been  distributed  un- 
der the  name  Early  Wisconsin  Hollander,  and  for  purposes  of 
distinction  the  original  resistant  strain  is  now  being  called  Late 
Wisconsin  Hollander. 

7.  In  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  kraut  industry,  resistant 
strains  have  been  selected  from  two  of  the  leading  commercial 
kraut  varieties,  Brunswick  and  All  Seasons,  and  these  have 
been  distributed  under  the  names  Wisconsin  Brunswick  and 
Wisconsin  All  Seasons. 

8.  Other  Fusarium-resistant  selections  are  receiving  attention 
as  follows : Professors  White  and  Close  of  the  Maryland  Exper- 
iment Station  have  secured  and  distributed  a resistant  strain 
of  the  Late  Flat  Dutch;  Professors  Melhus  and  Gilman  of  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  are  developing  a resistant  Copenhagen 
Market.  In  Wisconsin  the  Experiment  Station,  in  cooperation 
with  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  is  working  with  resistant  selections  of  All  Head 

TEarly,  Glory  of  Enkhuizen,  and  Copenhagen  Market. 

9.  By  following  the  proper  methods  any  skillful  cabbage 
grower  who  has  Fusarium-sick  soil  may  either  undertake  with 
reasonable  confidence  to  develop  a resistant  strain  of  his  own,  or 
having  secured  one  of  these  resistant  strains  he  can  maintain  its 
resistance  and  produce  his  own  seed. 

10.  It  is,  however,  important  to  note  that  the  Fusarium  dis- 
ease or  yellows  is  often  confused  by  growers  with  the  bacterial 
black  rot  (Bacterium  campestre),  and  that  these  selected  strains 
have  not  proved  to  be  especially  resistant  to  this  nor  to  the  other 
common  cabbage  diseases  such  as  black  leg  (Phoma)  and  club 
root  (Plasmodiophora). 

11.  In  all  cases  the  degree  of  resistance  to  Fusarium  shown 
by  these  strains  is  relative,  not  absolute.  The  seedling  -plants 
are  less  highly  resistant  than  they  are  after  the  transplanting 
stage. 

12.  Environmental  factors,  especially  soil  temperature,  influ- 
ence the  development  of  the  disease  and  also  the  disease  resist- 
ance of  the  host.  High  soil  temperature  favors  the  disease  and 
low  temperature  inhibits  it.  It  does  not  develop  even  in  the 


34 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  48 


non-resistant  strains  at  a temperature  below  about  17° C. 
(62°F.)  and  at  high  soil  temperatures  even  the  most  resistant 
strains  show  a considerable  percentage  of  infection. 

13.  In  accordance  with  the  temperature  relations  noted  above, 
the  best  results  are  obtained  under  Wisconsin  climatic  condi- 
tions by  starting  even  the  resistant  Strains  in  a non-infested  seed 
bed  to  avoid  possible  seedling  infection.  These  strains  are  then 
sufficiently  resistant  following  transplantation  to  mature  a com- 
mercially successful  crop  even  on  badly  diseased  soil. 

14.  These  resistant  strains  have  proved  resistant  so  far  as 
tested  in  other  states.  It  seems  probable  that  the  only  limita- 
tion in  this  respect  which  might  occur  would  be  in  cases  where 
they  were  subjected  to  more  trying  conditions  as  to  soil  tempera- 
ture, especially  in  the  seedling  stage. 

15.  Should  such  conditions  be  met,  our  experience  gives  us 
confidence  that  through  further  selection  resistant  strains  suited 
to  any  localized  conditions  could  be  secured.  It  is  our  belief, 
therefore,  that  the  cabbage  industry  can  be  permanently  main- 
tained in  any  section  of  the  country,  in  so  far  as  the  Fusarium 
or  yellows  disease  is  a limiting  factor,  through  the  selection  of 
disease-resistant  strains. 

16.  It  seems  probable  that  in  case  the  resistant  strains  are 
propagated  through  successive  generations  without  repeated  se- 
lection, they  will  tend  to  lose  to  some  extent  the  disease-resistant 
character. 

17^  When,  therefore,  it  seems  desirable  for  commercial  pur- 
poses to  grow  the  seed  crop  under  contract  in  non-infested  re- 
gions, it  is  urgently  recommended  that  the  mother  seed  for  each 
such  contract  crop  be  secured  from  plants  carefully  selected  for 
resistance  and  type  from  Fusarium  infested  fields.  By  this 
method  it  is  believed  that  the  present  standards  may  be  essen- 
tially maintained  and  seed  successfully  produced  on  any  desired 
scale,  by  the  commercial  contract  method. 

18.  Work  on  the  disease-resistant  cabbage  strains  will  be  con- 
tinued by  this  Experiment  Station  in  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  with  certain  other  state  experiment  stations.  While 
it  will  not  be  practicable  for  these  institutions  to  grow  or  dis- 
tribute seed  other  than  for  trial  purposes,  they  will  advise  or 
cooperate  with  growers  or  seed  firms  in  securing  an  adequate 
supply  of  resistant  mother  seed. 


Research  Bulletin  49 


November,  1920 


Influence  of  Rations  Restricted  to  the  Oat 
Plant  on  Reproduction  in  Cattle 


E.  B.  HABT,  H.  STEENBOCK  and  G.  C.  HUMPHREY 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction  3 

Experimental  conditions  5 

Effect  of  the  basal  ration  alone 5 

Effect  of  fortifying, the  oat  plant  ration  with  the  addition  of  extra 

fat  soluble  vitamine  6 

Effect  of  improving  the  protein  of  the  ration  by  supplementing 

with  casein  7 

■ Effect  of  two  additions  to  the  oat  plant  ration — fat  soluble  vitamine 

and  casein  8 

Effect  of  an  improvement  in  the  mineral  content  of  the  ration 8 

Effect  of  natural  plant  materials  as  partial  or  complete  substitutes 

for  the  oat  straw 11 

General  discussion 14 

Data  on  the  nature  and  calcium  content  of  the  ration  and  condition 

of  the  offspring  and  cow  15 

Effect  of  variable  amounts  of  calcium  in  the  ration  of  cattle  on  the 

calcium  content  of  the  blood  19 

Summary  20 


■influence  of  Rations  Restricted  to  the  Oat 
Plant  on  Reproduction  in  Cattle 


111  1911^  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  published  data 
comparing  the  effect  of  rations  balanced  from  the  corn,  oat,  and 
wheat  plants  upon  growth  and  reproduction  in  cattle.  Rations 
restricted  to  the  corn  plant  were  highly  successful  for  both 
growth  and  reproduction,  while  rations  restricted  to  the  wheat 
plant  were  disastrous  to  successful  growth  and  reproduction. 
The  work  with  a ration  made  from  the  oat  plant  indicated  at 
that  time  that  it  was  not  possible  to  make  a highly  successful 
ration  from  rolled  oats  and  oat  straw.  In  1917^  further  data 
were  published  bearing  on  the  influence  on  growth  and  repro- 
duction of  nutrients  derived  from  the  corn  and  wheat  plants. 
Evidence  was  reported  fixing  the  responsibility  for  incomplete- 
ness of  the  ration  made  from  the  wheat  plant  upon  (1)  a poor 
mineral  content  and  (2)  inherent  toxicity  in  the  wheat  kernel. 
In  1913^  Power  and  Salway  reported  the  isolation  of  choline 
from  the  wheat  embryo,  but  whether  this  substance  can  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  bad  effects  observed  at  this  Station  with 
wheat  grain  feeding  is  an  open  question. 

It  is  altogether  possible  that  a third  deficiency,  namely,  the 
fat  soluble  vitamine,  is  operative  in  a ration  made  ex- 
clusively from  the  wheat  plant.  Studies  on  the  content  of 
this  nutritive  factor  in  cereal  straws  are  now  under  way.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  successful  reproduction  with  the  wheat 
grain  and  wheat  straw  ration  was  secured  only  when  part  of 
the  wheat  straw  was  replaced  by  a good  roughage  such  as  al- 
falfa, but  only  for  a single  gestation.  In  the  second  gesta- 

^Hart,  E.  B.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  Steenbock,  H.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C. 
Physiolog'ical  effect  on  growth  and  reproduction  of  rations  balanced  from 
restricted  sources.  Res.  Bui.  17,  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1911. 

~ Hart,  E.  B.,  McCollum,  E.  V.,  Steenbock,  H.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C. 
Physiological  effect  on  growth  and  reproduction  of  rations  balanced  from 
restricted  sources.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  10:  4,  175.  1917. 

® Power,  P.  B.  and  Salway,  A.  H.  Chemical  examination  of  w'heat  germ. 
Pharm.  Jour.  91:  117.  1913. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


tion  period  the  cumulative  effect  of  the  toxicity  in  the  ration 
manifested  itself  in  imperfect  offspring.  With  com  stover  re- 
placing the  wheat  straw  only  partial  success  in  reproduction 
was  attained.  The  substitution  of  these  roughages  introduced 
into  the  ration  primarily  a better  salt  mixture,  and  probably 
also  a greater  supply  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine. 

The  work  re-emphasized  the  complexity  of  the  problem  of 
the  nutrition  of  herbivora  and  the  limitations  of  the  old  views  of 
a balanced  ration.  It  expanded  the  ideas  as  to  what  must  be 
the  nutritive  factors  in  a complete  ration.  It  showed  also 
that  the  same  factors  of  nutrition  operative  in  the  life  cycle  of 
our  most  extensively  investigated  mammal,  the  rat,  were  also 
operative  with  this  species.  Studies  on  the  causes  of  the  de- 
ficiencies in  the  oat  plant  ration  have  been  continued  and  the 
results  of  that  work  are  incorporated  in  this  publication. 

Earlier  investigation  of  the  oat  plant  as  the  sole  source  of 
nutrients  for  cattle  showed  that  it  was  possible  to  secure  good 
growth,  fair  reproduction  and  milk  secretion,  but  not  the  pro- 
duction of  offspring  of  the  highest  degree  of  vigor.  The 
calves  born  were  not  so  strong  and  vigorous  as  those  pro- 
duced by  cows  fed  a com  plant  ration,  yet  the  reproduction  re- 
sults secured  at  that  time  were  much  better  than  the  reproduc- 
tion results  obtained  on  the  wheat  plant. 

Present  knowledge  of  the  great  importance  of  an  adequate 
mineral  supply  in  the  ration  and  the  deficiencies  of  grains  and 
cereal  straws  in  these  respects,  particularly  in  reference  to 
calcium,  sodium  and  chlorine,  prompted  a review  of  earlier  work 
with  the  oat  plant.  The  facts  are  that  the  oat  straw  used  in 
those  earlier  experiments  had  been  grown  on  an  alkaline  soil  and 
contained  .84  per  cent  of  CaO.  This  amount  of  CaO  compared 
favorably  with  the  amount  in  the  corn  stover  used  at  that  time, 
which  was  .74  per  cent.  Sodium  chloride  need  not  be  considered 
in  these  rations  as  it  had  always  been  fed  generously  to  these  ani- 
mals. The  superior  results  secured  with  the  corn  ration  as 
compared  with  the  oat  ration,  although  the  former  contained 
slighth"  less  calcium,  must  rest  either  upon  the  poorer  avail- 
ability of  the  calcium  in  the  oat  straw,  or  upon  other  factors 
more  generously  supplied  by  the  corn  stover.  The  latter  view 
is  more  probable  because  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  a more 
liberal  supply  of  vitamines  would  accompany  corn  stover  as 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Ration  on  Cattle  Reproduction  5 

compared  with  well  ripened  oat  straw.  This  higher  content 
of  calcium  in  the  oat  straw  used  in  the  earlier  experiments  is 
probably  directly  responsible  for  the  mediocre  calves  produced 
in  the  earlier  experiments  with  the  oat  plant. 

In  later  work  the  oat  straw  used  was  much  lower  in  min- 
eral content  than  that  used  in  the  earlier  experiments.  It 
contained,  in  fact,  but  .47  per  cent  of  CaO,  or  approximately 
one-half  that  of  the  straw  used  in  the  earlier  work;  and  the 
calves  were  far  inferior. 

Experimental  Conditions 

The  cattle  used  for  these  experiments  were  grade  Holstein 
heifers.  They  were  brought  into  the  experimental  herd  usu- 
ally at  the  age  of  16  to  20  months  and  ready  for  breeding.  The 
herd  was  maintained  free  from  tuberculosis  and  contagious 
abortion  through  tri-monthly  inspections  for  tuberculosis  and 
monthly  inspections  for  contagious  abortion  by  the  Department 
of  Veterinary  Science  of  the  University.  These  animals  were 
kept  in  a well-lighted  basement  with  access  in  fair  weather  to 
an  outdoor  paddock  free  from  all  vegetation.  Earlier  ex- 
perience had  shown  that  growth  could  be  secured  on  a ration 
made  up  of  7 parts  of  rolled  oats  and  7 parts  of  oat  straw, 
such  as  was  used.  Consequently,  in  most  cases  these  rations 
were  made  up  on  the  basis  of  equal  parts  of  roughage  to  equal 
parts  of  grain  or  grain  substitute.  Offered  in  these  propor- 
tions the  cows  were  allowed  all  of  the  ration  they  would  con- 
sume. The  modification  of  the  basal  ration  of  7 parts  of  oat 
straw  and  7 parts  of  either  whole  oats  or  rolled  oats  was 
toward  an  improvement  of  the  probable  deficiencies  in  the 
known  nutritive  factors.  They  consisted  of  single  or  multiple 
additions  of  casein  for  the  improvement  of  the  proteins,  of  but- 
ter fat  to  increase  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  content  of  the  ration, 
and  salts — particularly  calcium  salts — ^to  make  up  deficiencies 
in  this  element.  Sodium  chloride  was  fed  ad  libitum. 

The  Effect,  of  the  Basal  Ration  Alone 

The  effect  of  feeding  the  oat  grain  as  rolled  oats  or  ground 
oats  plus  the  oat  straw  alone  was  invariably  to  produce  a 
premature  birth.  The  calf  was  born  either  dead  or  extremely 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


weak.  Parturition  was  premature  by  two  to  three  weeks  and 
the  mothers  would  fail  to  ‘ ‘ clean naturally. 

Where  the  calves  were  born  alive  it  was  necessary  to  feed 
them  from  a bottle  and  even  then  they  did  not  live..  Their 
blat  was  feeble  and  the  rate  of  respiration  abnormally  high. 
The  mothers  remained  in  only  a fair  condition  on  such  a ration, 
as  evidenced  by  the  condition  of  the  hair  coat,  but  their  live 
weight  was  maintained.  Cows  No.  661  and  No.  648 
illustrate  these  results.  The  calf  (male)  from  648  was  born 
17  days  ahead  of  normal  parturition  time  and  weighed  47 
pounds.  The  calf  (male)  from  661  was  born  19  days  ahead 
of  time  and  weighed  67  pounds.  Both  were  born  dead.  See 
figures  1 and  2. 

The  Effect  of  Fortifying  the  Oat  Plant  Ration  with  the 
Addition  of  Extra  Pat  Soluble  Vitamine 

The  oat  grain  itself  is  not  abundantly  supplied  with  the  fat 
soluble  vitamine^.  The  actual  content  of  oat  straw  in  this 
nutritive  factor  is  unknown.  It  would  probably  vary  with  the 
stage  of  cutting.  The  straw  used  was  well  matured.  The 
absence  or  scarcity  of  this  vitamine  in  the  diet  usually  mani- 
fests itself  in  xerophthalmia,  an  inflammation  of  the  conjunc- 
tiva, and  edema  of  the  eye  lids;  at  least  this  is  true  of  the  rat, 
and  similar  observations  have  been  made  on  the  human  infant® 
and  the  rabbit®.  No  indication  of  such  a condition  was  mani- 
fested by  these  cattle.  Although  xerophthalmia  does  not  in- 
variably follow  a deficiency  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  in  the 
diet  with  all  species,  experiments  were  initiated  where  two 
pounds  of  butter  fat  were  added  to  every  100  pounds  of  grain 
fed.  This  fat  soluble  vitamine  addition  alone  did  not  im- 
prove the  ration  for  reproduction.  While  it  may  have  been 
one  of  the  essential  nutritive  factors  responsible  for  failure  to 
secure  optimum  results,  yet  it  - was  not  the  principal  factor 
operative  in  the  production  of  the  poor  offspring.  The  exper- 
ience in  these  cases  was  not  different  from  those  with  the  grain 
and  straw  alone.  Calves  were  born  prematurely  and  were 


^McCollum,  E.  V.,  Simmonds,  N,  and  Pitz,  W.  The  nature  of  the  dietary- 
deficiencies  the  oat  kernel.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  29:  341.  1917. 

® Block.  C.  E.  Eye  diseases  and  other  disturbances  in  infants  from  de- 
ficiency of  fat  in  the  food.  Ugeskruft.  fiir  Laeger.  6S:  1516.  1917. 

"Nelson.  V.  E.  and  Lamb,  A.  R.  The  effect  of  vitamine  deficiency  on 
various  species  of  animals.  Amer,  Jour.  Physiol.  .'SliSSO.  1920. 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Eation  on  Cattle  Reproduction  7 


either  dead  or  extremely  weak.  The  calf  of  cow  No.  656  was 
born  19  days  ahead  of  time,  alive,  but  extremely  weak.  When 
picked  up  it  hung  from  the  arm  as  limp  as  a rag  and  died  a few 
days  after  birth.  It  was  a male  and  weighed  70  pounds. 

The  calf  of  cow  No.  653  was  bom  23  days  ahead  of  time  and 
alive,  but  lived  only  a few  days.  It  threw  its  head  backward 
in  a way  similar  to  that  of  so  many  wheat  calves.  This  is 
illustrated  in  the  photographs.  It  also  was  a male  and  weighed 
69  pounds.  See  figures  3 and  4. 

The  Effect  of  Improving  the  Protein  of  the  Ration 
BY  Supplementing  ^th  Casein 

The  fact  that  these  animals  grew  very  well  on  a ration  com- 
posed of  either  equal  parts  of  whole  oats  or  of  rolled  oats  and 
oat  straw  shows  that  the  protein  supplied  was  sufficient  for  cat- 
tle of  this  age.  Data  were  secured,  nevertheless,  on  the  effect 
of  improving  the  ration  by  the  use  of  approximately  25  per 
cent  of  the  protein  as  casein.  The  ration  fed  consisted  of  6.7 
parts  of  whole  oats,  0.3  parts  of  casein  and  7 parts  of  oat  straw. 
The  animals  vrere  given  all  they  would  consume  of  this  ration, 
but  in  the  proportions  indicated.  This  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  proteins  of  the  ration  had  no  ameliorating  effects 
whatever  on  the  character  of  the  offspring  produced  by  these 
cows.  These  results  are  shown  in  figures  5 and  6. 

Cow  No.  660  freshened  21  days  ahead  of  time,  giving  birth 
to  a 50-pound  heifer  calf.  The  calf  was  extremely  weak,  could 
not  stand  alone,  was  fed  from  a bottle  and  died  after  24  hours. 
The  cow  was  in  poor  condition  and  did  not  * ‘ clean naturally. 
A duplication  of  this  result  was  made  by  cow  No.  670  on  the 
same  ration.  This  cow  freshened  14  days  ahead  of  time,  giving 
birth  to  a 48-pound  bull  calf.  It  was  bom  at  3 p.  m.,  but 
could  not  stand  at  10  a.  m.  the  next  day.  It  had  a feeble  blat, 
was  nursed  from  a bottle  and  died  at  the  end  of  48  hours.  The 
mother  did  not  “clean’’  naturally,  although  she  remained  in 
fairly  good  condition  during  the  gestation  period.  These  re- 
sults and  those  already  described  show  that  improvement  of  an 
oat  plant  ration  could  not  be  made  through  the  use  of  more  fat 
soluble  vitamine  or  a better  protein  mixture  alone. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


The  Effect  of  Two  Additions  to  the  Oat  Plant 
Ration — Fat  Soluble  Vitamine  and  Casein 

Since  the  addition  of  a single  nutritive  factor  such  as  the  fat 
soluble  vitamine  or  casein  did  not  improve  the  oat  plant  ration 
for  calf  production  the  simultaneous  addition  of  the  two  was 
next  tried.  This  ration  consisted  of  6.7  parts  of  whole  oats, 
0.3  parts  of  casein  and  7 parts  of  oat  straw.  To  100  pounds 
of  the  grain  mixture  there  were  added  2 pounds  of  butter  fat. 
There  was  no  apparent  improvement  in  this  ration  for  repro- 
duction. Figures  7 and  8 illustrate  this. 

Cow  No.  671  gave  birth  three  weeks  ahead  of  time  to  a 59- 
pound  male,  weak  and  unable  to  stand.  It  threw  its  head 
back  upon  its  shoulders  in  very  much  the  same  way  described 
for  calves  produced  on  the  wheat  ration  and  for  the  offspring 
of  No.  653,  figure  3.  Like  them,  it  died  after  a few  days.  It 
is  a curious  fact  that  the  mammary  glands  of  the  cows  fed 
these  incomplete  rations  developed  very  rapidly — four  to  five 
days — immediately  previous  to  parturition  as  contrasted  with 
normal  conditions  of  nutrition  when  the  process  is  slow  and 
gradual. 

Cow  No.  670  produced  a 48-pound,  dead  male  calf  26  days 
ahead  of  time.  The  mother  did  not  ‘‘clean”  naturally,  but 
outwardly  this  cow  remained  in  a fair  state  of  nutrition. 

The  Effect  of  an  Improvement  in  the  Mineral 
Content  of  the  Ration 

The  fact  that  improvement  in  the  ration  could  not  be  made 
by  the  addition  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  alone,  or  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a better  protein,  or  by  a combination  of  the  two,  led  to 
making  additions  of  calcium  salts.  In  earlier  work  it  had 
been  learned  that  by  the  addition  of  a complex  salt  mixture  to 
a ration  of  corn  grain,  gluten  feed  and  wheat  straw^,  failure  in 
reproduction  could  be  changed  into  success.  The  materials 
used  in  that  earlier  work  consisted  of  potassium,  magnesium  and 
calcium  salts  of  organic  acids,  such  as  citric  and  lactic  acids. 
From  analysis  of  the  oat  plant  ration  and  experience  with  labor- 
atory animals  it  did  not  seem  necessary  to  use  a salt  mixture  as 
complex  as  the  one  used  previously,  and  especially  one  con- 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Kation  on  Cattle  Reproduction  9 


taining  magnesium  and  potassium;  consequently,  calcium  salts 
alone  were  used.  Commercial  sources  were  drawn  upon  for 
these  materials.  Calcium  acetate — 89  per  cent,  a by-product  of 
the  acetone  industry;  wood  ashes — a complex  salt  mixture,  55 
per  cent  of  which  was  calcium  carbonate;  and  finely  ground 
rock  phosphate — 84  per  cent  calcium  phosphate,  tri-calcium — 
were  used  at  the  rate  of  2 pounds  to  100  pounds  of  grain  or 
grain  mixture.  In  some  cases  the  calcium  salts  were  used 
with  casein  or  butter  fat  or  both,  but  in  other  cases  addition 
of  calcium  salts  was  the  only  supplement  made  to  the  oat  plant 
ration,  with  the  exception  of  common  salt;  this  was  given  the 
animals  twice  weekly  and  amounted  .to  about  one  ounce  each 
time. 

The  results  secured  are  exceedingly  interesting  and  important 
in  that  they  show  that  the  chief  deficiency  in  the  oat  plant  ration 
was  calcium.  Since  sodium  chloride  was  always  used  in  the 
ration  there  was  no  means  of  knowing  whether  or  not  this  was 
present  in  insufficient  amounts.  If  one  can  judge  from  mere 
gross  examination  it  is  doubtful  if  the  offspring  secured  through 
either  calcium  additions  alone  or  calcium  additions  plus  casein 
or  casein  and  butter  fat  were  as  vigorous  as  those  produced 
where  the  oat , straw  was  partly  or  wholly  substituted  by  nat- 
ural plant  materials  such  as  alfalfa,  corn  stover  or  clover  hay; 
but  we  did  secure  active,  healthy  calves  which  could  be  suc- 
cessfully reared  when  the  ration  was  supplemented  with  cal- 
cium salts.  Figures  9,  10,  11,  12,  and  13  illustrate  the  results 
obtained  in  this  series. 

Cow  No.  676  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  7 
of  oat  straw  and  2 pounds  of  wood  ashes  to  100  pounds  of  grain. 
She  produced  a 75-pound  heifer  calf  which  suckled  the  mother 
soon  after  birth.  The  calf  was  born  16  dsijs  ahead  of  time  but 
appeared  fairly  strong.  The  mother  remained  in  excellent 
condition  but  did  not  ‘‘clean”  naturally  at  parturition.  How- 
ever, the  after-birth  came  away  with  little  difficulty. 

Cow  No.  668  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  7 of 
oat  straw  and  2 pounds  of  calcium  acetate  to  100  pounds  of 
grain  plus  common  salt  as  in  all  cases.  She  freshened  7 days 
ahead  of  time,  produced  a 69-pound  heifer  cow  which  was  ap- 
parently strong  and  vigorous.  This  cow  “cleaned”  naturally 
One  of  the  noticeable  effects  of  calcium  additions  to  this  ration 


10 


Wisconsin  Eesearch  Bulletin  49 


was  to  prolong  the  gestation  period  to  its  normal  limit.  Further, 
in  nearly  all  of  the  cases  of  deficient  rations,  premature  birth 
and  retention  of  the  placenta  were  generally  synonymous. 

Cow  No.  660  received  a ration  of  6.7  parts  of  whole  oats,  0.3 
of  casein,  7 of  oat  straw  and  2 pounds  of  floats  (crude  calcium 
phosphate)  to  100  pounds  of  grain.  Notice  in  flgure  5 her 
record  where  no  calcium  salts  were  added  in  the  gestation  period 
immediately  preceding  this  one.  In  this  gestation  period  with 
calcium  addition  she  produced  a 65-pound  heifer  calf  of  fair 
strength  which  was  born  8 days  ahead  of  time.  This  cow 
‘‘cleaned”  naturally.  From  the  appearance  of  the  hair  coat 
she  was  not  in  first  class  condition,  but  apparently  this  did  not 
indicate  a status  of  malnutrition  of  a degree  sufficient  to  inter- 
fere with  normal  reproduction. 

Cow  No.  656  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  7 of 
oat  straw,  2 pounds  of  butter  fat  and  2 pounds  of  calcium 
acetate  to  100  pounds  of  grain.  Notice  her  record  in  the  pre- 
ceding gestation,  flgure  4.  She  now  produced  a 64-pound  hei- 
fer calf  6 days  ahead  of  time.  The  calf  was  small  but  fairly 
strong.  The  cow  “cleaned”  naturally.  The  calf  suckled  the 
mother  for  4 days,  after  which  it  was  transferred  to  separator 
skimmilk.  This  milk  was  the  product  of  the  University  herd 
in  March,  1918.  On  this  milk  the  calf  grew  48  pounds  in  50 
days  and  appeared  in  thrifty  condition.  Starch,  equal  to  the 
heat  value  of  the  fat  removed  had  been  added  to  the  skimmilk. 
These  facts  are  somewhat  irrelevant  to  the  matter  in  hand  but 
do  show  two  things:  flrst,  that  this  calf  could  be  raised;  and 
second,  that  separator  skimmilk  probably  contains  enough  of 
the  fat  soluble  vitamine  for  the  early  growth  of  calves. 

Cow  No.  671  received  a ration  consisting  of  6.7  parts  of  whole 
oats,  0.3  parts  of  casein,  7 parts  of  oat  straw,  2 pounds  of  but- 
ter fat  and  2 pounds  of  wood  ashes  to  100  pounds  of  grain  mix- 
ture. On  this  ration  she  produced  a 74-pound  male  of  fair  vigor. 
The  calf  was  born  12  days  ahead  of  time,  suckled  the  mother 
without  help  and  was  reared.  This  cow  “cleaned”  naturally. 
Contrast  this  record  with  that  of  the  preceding  gestation  period, 
involving  the  absence  of  calcium  salts  as  a supplement  and 
shown  in  figure  8. 

These  five  positive  results  on  the  influence  of  calcium  addi- 
tions make  it  clear  wherein  rested  the  main  deficiency  in  the 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Eation  on  Cattle  Eeproduction  11 


oat  plant  ration  used  in  this  work.  Variations  in  the  calcium 
content  of  straw  will  occur,  depending  upon  the  soils  producing 
them.  This  statement  is  equally  true  of  other  plant  stems  and 
i leaves  (roughages),  but  limited,  of  course,  with  respect  to  the 
lower  and  upper  level  of  calcium  content  fixed  by  the  species 
themselves.  Legume  hays  as  alfalfa  or  clover,  if  they  can  be 
grown  at  all,  will  probably  never  be  so  low  in  calcium  content  as 

r a cereal  straw  or  some  of  the  grasses. 

i- 

[ Effect  of  Natural  Plant  Materials  as  Partial  or 

^ Complete  Substitutes  for  ^the  Oat  Straw 

It  became  imperative  to  obtain  definite  infoimiation  as  to  what 
‘ natural  roughages  could  partly  or  wholly  replace  the  straw  and 
: be  effective  for  reproduction.  Com  silage  was  first  used  al- 

' lowing  12  pounds  of  this  material  to  replace  half  of  the  oat 
straw,  when  expressed  in  terms  of  dry  matter.  The  ration 
consisted  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  3.5  of  oat  straw  and  12  of  corn 
silage.  The  silage  contained  .25  per  cent  of  CaO.  On  the 
basis  of  7 pounds  of  air  dried  roughage  the  3.5  pounds  of  oat 
; straw  and  12  pounds  of  silage  would  be  equivalent  to  a rough- 
( age  containing  .66  per  cent  of  CaO.  On  this  ration  varied  re- 
sults were  obtained.  It  seemed  to  be  dangerously  near  the 
^ lowest  limit  of  calcium  allowable  for  successful  reproduction  in 
• this  class  of  animals.  The  results  are  illustrated  in  figures  14 
I and  15. 

I Cow  No.  656  produced  on  this  ration  a 73-pound  heifer  calf 
I born  6 days  ahead  of  normal  time.  This  calf  was  strong  and 
J vigorous.  The  cow  remained  in  splendid  condition  and 
\ “cleaned’’  naturally.  This  reproduction  was  both  normal  and 
> satisfactory. 

Cow.  No.  653,  receiving  the  same  ration,  produced  an  ap- 
parently  strong,  active  male  calf  of  73  pounds  weight  11  days 
I ahead  of  time.  The  calf  appeared  thrifty  at  birth,  but  at  the 
^ end  of  24  hours  began  to  grow  weak  and  at  48  hours  was  dead, 
if  The  cause  of  death  was  unknown.  The  cow  did  not  “clean” 
f naturally,  although  she  appeared  in  good  condition  throughout 
the  entire  gestation  period.  It  is  evident  that  the  ration  was 
f not  in  optimum  balance  for  all  individuals. 

$1.  Displacement  of  part  of  the  oat  straw  with  a calcium-rich 
S legume  hay  was  next  tried.  The  ration  consisted  of  7 parts  of 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


whole  oats,  4 of  oat  straw  and  3 of  alfalfa.  The  alfalfa  con- 
tained 2.12  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide.  This  was  equivalent  to 
the  use  of  7 pounds  of  roughage  with  a calcium  oxide  content  of 
1.18  per  cent,  or  two  and  a half  times  that  of  an  equivalent  of 
oat  straw.  The  results  are  shown  in  figures  16  and  17.  Cow  655 
produced  an  84-pound  male  calf  5 days  ahead  of  time.  The  calf 
was  strong  and  lived.  The  cow  was  in  splendid  condition  and 
“cleaned”  naturally. 

A duplicate  of  this  performance  was  made  by  cow  No.  657. 
She  produced  an  80-pound  male  calf  born  but  3 days  ahead  of 
time.  This  cow  also  “cleaned”  naturally  and  was  in  a fine 
state  of  vigor  throughout  the  entire . gestation  period.  Where 
successful  nutrition  was  established,  as  in  these  cases,  there  was 
a gradual  but  progressive  udder  development  rather  than  the 
sudden  enlargement  of  the  mamma  as  seen  so  often  in  cases  of 
restricted  and  inefficient  rations. 

The  calves  produced  by  these  cows,  as  well  as  those  to  be 
described  hereafter,  were  sturdy  and  vigorous  and  generally  of 
greater  weight  than  those  produced  on  the  oat-straw,  oat  grain 
ration  with  calcium  salt  additions.  This  experience  would  in- 
dicate that  the  natural  and  better  roughages  were  making  the 
ration  a more  complete  one  than  the  additions  of  known  sub- 
stances had  succeeded  in  doing.  While  a great  deal  was  ac- 
complished by  rebuilding  the  oat  plant  ration  through  protein, 
fat  soluble  vitamine  and  especially  calcium  additions,  yet  for 
most  excellent  results  in  reproduction  it  would  probably  be  pre- 
ferable to  substitute  a part  of  the  straw  for  a higher  calcium 
containing  roughage  rather  than  to  rely  on  the  addition  of  cal- 
cium salts  alone.  These  results  also  have  great  practical  ap- 
plication. They  show  how  it  is  possible  to  use  a straw  in  a 
ration  with  greatest  success. 

Where  corn  stover  completely  replaced  the  oat  straw,  success- 
ful reproduction  was  had.  The  ration  consisted  of  7 parts  of 
whole  oats  and  7 parts  of  corn  stover.  This  corn  stover  con- 
tained .75  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide.  The  results  secured  are 
shown  in  figures  18,  19  and  20.  On  this  ration  cow  No.  659 
freshened  in  August,  1917,  15  days  ahead  of  time.  The  calf  was 
a 66-pound  male.  It  was  weak  at  birth,  but  grew  stronger  and 
lived.  The  cow  did  not  “clean”  naturally.  She  was  continued 
on  the  same  ration  for  another  gestation  period,  using  the  same 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Ration  on  Cattle  Reproduction  13 

roughage.  In  August,  1918,  she  produced  a 65-pound  heifer  calf 
13  days  ahead  of  time.  This  calf  was  strong  at  birth,  on  its 
feet  suckling  half  an  hour  after  being  born  and  was  success- 
fully raised.  The  cow  '‘cleaned”  naturally. 

Cow  No.  662  on  the  same  ration  freshened  10  days  ahead  of 
time,  producing  an  active  and  vigorous  64-pound  heifer  which 
was  raised  successfully.  The  placenta  was  expelled  without 
help. 

In  figures  21  and  22  are  shown  the  records  of  reproduction 
with  whole  oats  and  clover  hay,  or  part  clover  hay.  When  all  of 
the  oat  straw  was  replaced  by  medium  red  clover  hay  with  a 
calcium  oxide  content  of  1.48  per  cent  a successful  life  cycle  was 
secured.  Cow  No.  680,  purchased  as  a heifer  of  300  pounds 
weight  had  matured  on  this  ration  and  in  October,  1918,  gave 
birth  to  a 94-pound  strong,  male  calf.  The  calf  remained 
strong  and  was  reared.  There  was  no  retention  of  the  after- 
birth. Where  clover  hay  replaced  2 parts  of  the  oat  straw  and 
corn  stover  replaced  5 parts  of  the  straw,  successful  reproduc- 
tion was  secured.  This  mixture  of  2 parts  of  clover  hay  and 
5 parts  of  corn  stover  gave  a roughage  of  .96  per  cent  of  cal- 
cium oxide. 

On  this  ration  cow  No.  671  produced  a 90-pound  heifer  calf 
2 days  ahead  of  time.  The  calf  was  strong  and  thrifty  and  in 
fine  condition.  The  cow  “cleaned”  naturally.  Contrast  this 
record  with  that  shown  by  this  same  cow  in  figures  8 and  13.  On 
an  oat  ration  without  calcium  additions  she  produced  a weak  59- 
pound  calf  that  died.  On  the  same  ration,  plus  calcium  salts 
as  wood  ashes,  she  produced  a fairly  strong  74-pound  calf  that 
was  successfully  raised.  On  the  oat  grain  plus  clover  hay  and 
corn  stover  she  produced  a 90-pound  calf  which  was  also  strong 
and  vigorous. 

Much  prejudice  exists  against  wild  marsh  hay  as  a roughage. 
This  is  probably  because  our  judgment  of  the  value  of  a rough- 
age  has  been  guided  by  its  content  of  protein,  or  carbohydrate, 
or  ether  extract.  While  for  certain  purposes  the  protein  con- 
tent of  the  roughage  is  of  great  importance,  yet  for  reproduc- 
tion and  normal  physiological  performance  the  special  value  of 
a roughage  when  fed  with  a grain  will  depend  upon  its  vitamine 
and  mineral  content,  particularly  calcium.  Marsh  grasses,  like 
other  grasses,  will  vary  in  their  mineral  content,  depending  up- 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


on  the  soil  on  which  they  are  grown.  In  the  particular  ex- 
periments reported  here  a marsh  hay  grown  on  the  alkaline 
marsh  soil  owned  by  the  University  was  used.  The  soil  itself 
was  rich  in  lime  as  evidenced  by  the  shell  deposits  found  in  it. 
This  wild  marsh  hay  in  its  air  dried  condition  contained  1.18 
per  cent  of  calcium  oxide.  This  hay  was  used  as  a complete 
substitute  for  oat  straw.  Our  ration  consisted  of  7 part^  of 
whole  oats  and  7 parts  of  marsh  hay.  This  ration  was  fed  con- 
tinuously and  in  an  air  dried  condition  during  the  entire  gesta- 
tion period.  Further,  common  salt  was  always  allowed  all  of 
these  animals.  Figures  23  and  24  illustrate  the  results.  Splendid 
offspring  resulted  showing  that  a marsh  hay  grown  on  an  alka- 
line marsh  may  become  a very  useful  roughage.  Such  results 
may  not  be  secured  when  the  hay  is  cut  from  an  acid  marsh. 

Cow  No.  659  produced  an  84-pound  male  calf  freshening  14 
days  ahead  of  time.  The  calf  was  strong  and  active  and  was 
successfully  raised.  The  cow  remained  in  splendid  condition. 
The  afterbirth  came  away  naturally.  , 

Cow  No.  662  on  the  same  ration  produced  a 91-pound  male 
calf,  also  strong  and  active.  This  cow  continued  in  vigorous 
condition  during  the  entire  gestation  period  and  “cleaned” 
naturally. 

A summary  of  the  most  important  data  relating  to  these  ex- 
periments is  presented  in  Table  I.  Particular  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  fairly  close  correlation  between  the  calcium  con- 
tent of  these  rations  and  successful  reproduction. 

G-eneral  Discussion 

The  results  of  this  inquiry  into  the  deficiencies  of  the  oat 
plant  for  successful  reproduction  in  cattle,  point  toward  the 
inorganic  constituents  as  the  one  of  first  importance.  The 
results  also  make  calcium  the  principal  deficiency  where  com- 
mon salt  is  added  to  the  ration  as  is  customary.  Our  data 
indicate  that  when  other  factors  are  adequately  supplied,  the 
ration  of  an  herbivorous  animal  should  contain  at  least  .45  per 
rent  of  calcium  oxide  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  total  ration. 
An  air  dried  roughage  containing  0.9  per  cent  of  calcium 
oxi^e,  provided  it  were  fed  as  half  of  the  dry  matter  of  the 
ration,  would  probably  be  adequate  in  calcium  oxide  content. 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Kation  on  Cattle  Reproduction  15 


Table  1, — Data  on  the  Nature  and  Calcium:  Content  of  the  Ration 
AND  Condition  of  the  Offspring  and  Cow 


Cow 

No. 

Ration 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 
CaO  in 
ration 

Weight 
of  calf 
Lbs. 

Condition  of 
calf  at  birth 

Removal  or 
retention  of 
placenta 

648 

668 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

.31 

.31 

47 

67 

Dead 

Died  shortly 
after  birth 

Retained 

Retained 

656 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

2 lbs.  butter  fat  per  100 
lbs.  grain 

.31 

70 

Weak,  died  in  48 
hours 

Retained 

653 

7 whole  oats 
■7  oat  straw 

2 lbs.  butter  fat  per  100 
lbs.  grain 

.31 

69 

Weak,  died  in  72 
hours 

* 

Retained 

660 

6.7  whole  oats 
.3  casein 
7 oat  straw 

,31 

50 

Weak,  died  in  24 
hours 

Retained 

670 

6.7  whole  oats 
.3  casein 
7 oat  straw 

.31 

48 

Weak,  died  in  48 
hours 

Retained 

671 

6.7  whole  oats 
.3  casein 
7 oat  straw 

2 lbs.  butter  fat  per  100 
lbs.  grain 

.31 

59 

Weak,  died 

Retained  and 
“cleaned”  with 
diflBculty 

670 

6.7  whole  oats 
.3  casein 
7 oat  straw 

2 lbs.  butter  fat  per  100 
lbs.  grain 

.31 

48 

Dead 

Retained 

676 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

2 lbs.  wood  ashes  per 
100  lbs.  grain 

.62 

75 

Strong  (fairly  so) 

Retained,  but 
“cleaned”  with 
ease 

668 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

2 lbs.  calcium  acetate 
per  100  lbs.  grain 

.62 

69 

Strong 

“Cleaned”  natur- 
ally 

660 

6.7  oats 
.3  casein 
7.0  oat  straw 
2 lbs.  floats  per  100  lbs. 
grain 

.75 

65 

Strong  (fairly  so) 

“Cleaned”  natur- 
ally 

656 

7 . 0 oats 
7.0  oat  straw 
2 lbs.  calcium  acetate 
2 lbs.  butter  fat  per  100 
lbs.  grain 

.62 

64 

Strong  (fairly  so) 

“Cleaned”  natur- 
ally 

671 

6.7  oats 
.3  casein 
7.0  oat  straw 
2 lbs.  butter  fat 
2 lbs.  wood  ashes  per 
100  lbs.  grain 

.62 

74 

Strong  (fairly  so) 

“Cleaned”  natur- 
ally 

656 

7.9  oats 
3.5  oat  straw 
12  silage 

.41 

73 

Strong  (fairly  so) 

“Cleaned”  natur- 
ally 

16 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


Table  1. — Data  on  the  Nature  and  Calcium  Content  of  the  Ration 
AND  Condition  op  the  Offspring  and  Cow — Continued 


Cow 

No. 

Ration 

Lbs, 

• 

Per  cent 
CaO  in 
ration 

Weight 
of  calf 
Lbs. 

Condition  of 
calf  at  birth 

Removal  or 
retention  of 
placenta 

653 

7.0  oats 
3.5  oat  straw 
12  silage 

.41 

73 

Weak,  dead  after 
48  hours 

Retained 

655 

7.0  oats 
4 oat  straw 
3 alfalfa  hay 

.64 

84 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

657 

7 oats 
4 oat  straw 
3 alfalfa  hay 

.64 

80 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

659 

7 oats 

7 corn  stover 

.45 

66 

Weak  at  first, 
grew  strong 

Retained 

659 

7 oats 

7 corn  stover 

.45 

65 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

662 

7 oats 

7 corn  stover 

.45 

64 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

680 

7 oats 

7 clover  hay 

.80 

94 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

671 

7 oats 

2 clover  hay 
5 corn  stover 

.50 

90 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

659 

7 oats 

7 marsh  ha.v 

I .61 

84 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

662 

7 oats 

7 marsh  hay 

91 

Strong 

“Cleaned” 

It  should  be  clear,  however,  that  an  optimum  performance  was 
never  reached  with  our  ‘ ‘ synthetic  ’ ’ ration  where  more  fat  soluble 
vitamine  and  better  proteins  and  calcium  salts  were  added  to 
our  oat  plant  ration.  A | complete  failure  was  transformed  to 
a fair  success,  but  not  to  a superlative  one.  The  calves  pro- 
duced on  the  synthetic  ration  were  not  so  sturdy  as  those  pro- 
duced from  a high  calcium  natural  roughage  used  as  a supple- 
ment to  the  oat  grain.  Further,  it  appeared  that  success  was 
as  great  with  the  oat  plant  ration  supplemented  with  calcium 
salts  and  sodium  chloride  alone  as  where  further  additions  of 
protein  or  fat  soluble  vitamine  were  made.  This  makes  it 
clear  that  the  main  deficiency  of  the  oat  plant  ration  was  a low 
calcium  content. 

Further,  it  is  altogether  possible  that  the  calcium  oxide  figure 
advised  as  a minimum  amount  allowable  in  the  ration  of  re- 
producing cows  may  be  modified  if  the  material  were  fresh, 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Ration  on  Cattle  Reproduction  17 

green  plant  tissue  and  not  dried.  On  this  point  there  are  no 
data  at  present. 

Just  why  a low  calcium  intake  should  be  the  determining 
factor  in  normal  or  abnormal  reproduction  is  not  clear.  The 
hypothesis^  has  already  been  offered  “that  with  a generous 
sodium  chloride  intake  and  a low  amount  of  calcium  salts  the 
surface  protoplasmic  films  of  the  epithelial  cells  of  the  intestinal 
mucosa  would  present  a structure  in  which  water  was  the  con- 
tinuous phase.  This  latter  system  would  be  one  of  greater  per- 
meability to  water  and  water  soluble  substances.  This  hy- 
pothesis of  intestinal  protoplasmic  structure  as  influenced  by 
the  balance  of  sodium  and  calcium  salts  in  the  ration  would 
pave  the  way  for  the  view  that  on  low  calcium  rations  there 
can  be  especially  favorable  conditions  for  continual  absorption 
of  products  of  intestinal  origin,  among  which  may  be  bacterial 
toxins  or  amines.’’ 

The  foregoing  hypothesis  was  outlined  as  a suggested  explana- 
tion of  unsuccessful  reproduction  with  swine  confined  to  grain 
diets,  common  salt  and  natural  water.  With  swine,  as  with 
cattle,  complete  restoration  to  normal  reproduction  was  es- 
tablished when  a calcium  rich  legume  hay,  such  as  dry  alfalfa, 
was  incorporated  in  the  ration.  In  the  case  of  swine  the  factors 
introduced  by  the  use  of  alfalfa  hay  have  not  been  dissected 
and  it  can  only  be  suggested,  from  analogy  with  the  present  ex- 
periments on  cattle,  that  the  main  factor  is  a calcium  factor.  The 
work  on  the  dissection  of  these  facts,  however,  is  in  progress. 
We  can  see  no  reason  why  the  foregoing  hypothesis  should  not 
s-pply  with  equal  force  to  the  work  with  cattle.  But  there  may 
be  additional  factors  operative  in  this  problem.  Is  there  some 
accessory  food  factor  (vitamine),  concerned  with  calcium  as- 
similation and  possibly  other  physiological  functions,  in  too  low 
a supply  in  such  cereal  straws  as  here  used  so  that  when  the 
ration  is  fortified  with  an  extra  supply  of  calcium  salts  the 
mass  action  of  the  latter  becomes  an  effective  means  of  assisting 
in  calcium  assimilation?  Forbes®  and  Meigs^  have  observed  that 

’Hart,  E.  B.  and  Steenbock,  H.  Maintenance  and  reproduction  with 
grains  and  grain  products  as  the  sole  diet.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  30;  209. 
1919. 

® Forbes,  E.  B.  The  mineral  metabolism  of  the  milch  cow.  Buis.  303, 
308  .3.30.  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1916-1918. 

® Meigs,  E.  B.,  Blatherwick,  N.  R.  and  Cary,  C.  A.  Contributions  to  the 
physiology  of  phosphorus  and  calcium  metabolism  as  related  to  milk 
secretion.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  .37:45.  1919;  40:  469.  1919. 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  49 


milking  cows  are  in  negative  calcium  balance  even  with  high 
calcium-containing  rations,  such  as  those  containing  dry  alfalfa 
hay.  Earlier  observation  at  this  Station^®  showed  the  same 
situation  with  oat  straw  as  a roughage  for  both  cows  and  goats. 
Would  this  be  the  case  with  green  alfalfa  hay  or  green  oat  hay? 
The  extra  drain  put  upon  an  accessory  factor  controlling  calci- 
um metabolism  by  a milking  animal  would  be  much  greater  than 
by  a dry  animal,  by  virture  of  the -probable  secretion  of  such  a 
vitamine  into  the  milk.  We  had  no  trouble  with  reproduction 
from  dry  cows  where  corn  stover,  clover  hay,  alfalfa  hay  or 
marsh  hay  was  used  as  the  roughage,  although  judging  from  the 
work  of  Forbes,  Meigs  and  their  associates  these  cows  would  very 
probably  have  been  in  negative  calcium  balance  had  they  been 
milking.  This  may,  however,  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  milk 
secreted.  In  the  case  of  dry  cereal  straw  with  a low  supply  of 
calcium  and  presumably  a comparatively  low  supply  of  an  ac- 
cessory factor  influencing  calcium  assimilation,  negative  calcium 
balance  would  probably  have  prevailed  even  when  the  animals 
were  not  milking.  If  this  hypothesis  is  tenable,  then  a ration 
made  from  the  green  oat  plant  would  probably  be  adequate  for 
a reproducing  cow  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  calcium  as- 
similation. This  hypothesis  would  involve  the  assumption  that 
green  plant  tissue  was  more  abundantly  supplied  with  a vita- 
mine  (anti-rachitic)  controlling  calcium  assimilation  than  the 
dry  material.  All  of  these  assumptions  are  subject  to  experi- 
mental inquiry. 

During  the  course  of  this  experiment  on  cattle  many  calcium 
determinations  in  the  plasma  of  the  blood  were  made.  There 
is  a remarkable  constancy  in  the  amount  of  this  element  circulat- 
ing in  the  blood  no  matter  whether  the  ration  was  especially 
low  or  especially  rich  in  calcium.  Variations  are  as  great 
among  individuals  on  the  same  rations  as  on  rations  high  and 
low  in  calcium.  A limited,  but  representative  amount  of  data 
on  this  problem  is  shown  in  Table  2.  These  samples  of  blood 
were  taken  flve  months  after  the  animals  were  put  on  their  re- 
spective rations. 

Two  animals.  Nos.  666  and  667,  are  included  to  show  the  con- 

10  Hart,  E.  B.,  McCollum,  E.  V.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  Role  of  the  ash 
constituents  of  wheat  bran  in  the  metabolism  of  herbivora.  Res.  Bui.  6, 
Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1909. 

Steenbock,  H.  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Influence  of  function  on  the  lime  re- 
quirement of  animals.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  14:  59.  1913. 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Ration  on  Cattle  Reproduction  19 


stancy  of  the  calcium  content  of  the  blood  as  well  as  variations 
among  individuals.  These  animals  received  nothing  but  alfalfa 
hay,  the  calcium  oxide  content  of  which  was  2.12  per  cent.  These 
results  on  the  calcium  content  of  the  blood  plasma  of  cattle  are 
in  harmony  with  those  reported  by  Meigs,  Blatherwick  and 
Cary,^^  but  where  a constant  calcium  intake  was  maintained. 
Apparently  some  mechanism  is  at  work  whereby  during  calcium 
scarcity  in  the  ration  or  faulty  calcium  assimilation  the  skeletal 
tissue  becomes  a means  for  maintaining  the  blood  composition 
constant.  An  over-abundance  of  calcium  in  the  diet  of  this 
species  apparently  does  not  influence  the  concentration  of  cal- 
cium in  the  blood. 


Table  2. — The  Effect  of  Variable  Amounts  of  Calcium  in  the 
Ration  of  Cattle  on  the  Calcium;  Content  of  the  Blood 


Cow 

No. 

Ration 

Lbs. 

Mg.  Ca  in 
100  cc.  blood 
plasma 

668 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

9.4 

660 

6.7  whole  oats 

9.6 

.3  casein 
7.0  oat  straw 

660 

Same  + 2 lbs.  crude  rock  phosphate  per  100  lbs.  grain 

9.2 

671 

Same  + butter  fat  -{■  2 lbs.  wood  ashes  per  100  lbs.  grain 

9.2 

680 

7 whole  oats 
7 oat  straw 

11.6 

667 

Alfalfa 

9.2 

666 

Alfalfa 

11.6 

659 

7 whole  oats 

9.2 

7 marsh  hay 

• 

673 

7 whole  oats 

7 oat  straw  -i-  2 lbs.  Ca  acetate  per  100  lbs.  grain 

10.9 

That  raised  the  question  whether  or  not  the  calcium  content 
of  the  blood  of  these  animals  might  be  appreciably  lower  just 
prior  to  parturition — the  period  of  most  rapid  foetus  develop- 
ment. Such  a condition  on  a low  injestion  of  calcium  might 
lead  to  serious  disturbances  such  as  have  been  noted  in  imma- 


Meigs,  E.  B.,  Blatherwick,  N.  R.  and  Cary,  C.  A.  Contributions  to 
the  physiology  of  phosphorus  and  calcium  metabolism  of  dairy  cows. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  40;  469.  1919. 


20 


Wisconsin  Eesearch  Bulletin  49 


ture  calf  production.  The  data  obtained  here  are  very  incom- 
plete on  this  point  and  would  not  support  such  a view. 

Cow  No.  660  on  a ration  of  6.7  parts  of  whole  oats,  .3  of 
casein  and  7 of  oat  straw  showed  8.9  m^.  of  calcium  to  100  cc 
of  plasma  one  month  before  calving.  At  the  end  of  five  months 
of  pregnancy  the  calcium  content  of  her  blood  was  9.6  mg. 

Cow  No.  680  on  a ration  of  whole  oats  and  oat  straw  showed 
one  month  before  parturition  10.8  mg.  of  calcium  to  100  cc  of 
blood  plasma  while  at  the  end  of  five  months  pregnancy  her 
blood  contained  11.6  mgs.  No  positive  significance  can  be  at- 
tached to  these  limited  data. 

Certainly,  further  studies  should  be  directed  toward  a thor- 
ough analysis  of  the  blood  stream  of  these  animals  at  different 
stages  of  pregnancy,  making  organic  as  well  as  inorganic  dis- 
sections with  the  hope  of  unraveling  the  causes  of  such  marked 
disturbances  in  .reproduction  as  are  observed.  The  carbon  di- 
oxide combining  power  of  the  blood  plasma  of  cows  on  oat  straw 
and  oat  grain  was  not  lower  than  that  of  cows  restricted  wholly 
to  a plant  material  rich  in  bases,  particularly  calcium,  such  as 
alfalfa  hay.  In  the  case  of  cow  No.  661,  confined  to  a ration  of 
oat  grain  and  oat  straw  and  giving  birth  to  a weak  calf,  the  alka- 
line reserve  after  five  months’-  confinement  to  the  ration  was 
61.8  to  100  cc  of  blood  plasma. 

Cow  No.  666,  receiving  nothing  but  alfalfa  hay  during  an  en- 
tire gestation  period  and  giving  birth  to  a strong  calf,  showeld 
an  alkaline  reserve  of  61.4  to  100  cc  of  blood  plasma  after  five 
months’  restriction  to  the  ration. 

The  evidence  probably  is  against  the  idea  that  those  rations 
producing  weak  offspring  were  rations  that  tended  toward  the 
production  of  a condition  of  acidosis. 

In  a practical  way  the  results  of  this  investigation  must  have 
great  significance.  They  emphasize,  far  beyond  its  net  energy 
and  protein  content,  the  dominating  importance  of  forage  for 
breeding  animals  and  the  necessity  for  emphasis  upon  the  pro- 
duction and  special  selection  of  such  forage.  These  results  raise 
new  questions  in  agriculture.  Can  safe  forage  of  all  kinds  be 
grown  on  acid  soils  or  will  we  find  those  types  of  plants  natur- 
ally rich  in  calcium  the  most  desirable  ones  to  raise  on  such 
areas?  Will  timothy  and  other  grasses  and  even  corn  stover 
be  too  poor  in  calcium  content  when  grown  on  acid  soils  to 


Influence  of  Oat  Plant  Ration  on  Cattle  Reproduction  21 


make  possible  the  greatest  efficiency  in  animal  husbandry,  or 
must  we  insist  that  for  success  in  animal  production  the  plants 
naturally  rich  in  calcium,  as  legume  hays,  must  be  grown  when 
a system  of  animal  husbandry  prevails  and  soils  are  acid?  And 
again,  will  the  calcium  of  materials  in  their  green  state,  al- 
though they  are  percentagely  poor  in  this  element,  be  more 
completely  assimilated  than  when  the  plant  tissues  are  old  and 
dried?  These  are  problems  for  the  future. 

The  results  secured  thus  far  do  show  very  positively  that  a 
certain  amount  of  poor  roughage  such  as  oat  straw  can  be  used 
with  safety  in  the  ration  when  the  remainder  of  the  roughage 
is  drawn  from  a type  rich  in  calcium. 


Summary 

This  publication  embraces  further  work  on  the  influence  of 
restricted  rations  on  reproduction  in  cattle. 

1.  A ration  made  from  the  oat  plant  was  inadequate  for  ef- 
ficient nutrition  of  breeding  cows.  The  offspring  were  born 
prematurely  and  were  either  very  weak  at  birth  or  born  dead. 

2.  Additions  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  or  of  casein  or  of 
both  of  these  nutritive  factors  to  a whole  oat,  oat-straw  ration 
did  not  improve  it  for  reproduction. 

3.  Fortification  of  the  oat  plant  with  calcium  salts  either  as 
a carbonate  (wood  ashes),  as  a phosphate  (floats)  or  as  calcium 
acetate  greatly  improved  conditions  for  reproduction.  Sodium 
chloride  was  always  allowed.  Under  the  influence  of  these 
additions,  offspring  of  fair  vigor  were  produced.  This  im- 
provement in  the  ration  was  secured  even  without  the  addition 
of  a better  protein  or  more  fat  soluble  vitamine  to  the  oat  grain- 
oat  straw  ration. 

4.  The  ‘ ' synthetic  ration  ’ ’ apparently  did  not  secure  as  strong 
offspring  as  were  produced  by  the  use  of  natural  roughages 
such  as  corn  stover,  clover,  alfalfa  or  marsh  hay.  The  latter 
was  grown  on  an  alkaline  marsh  and  gave  surprisingly  good  re- 
sults. 

5.  It  would  appear  from  these  data  that  the  ration  of  a dry 
breeding  cow,  where  all  other  nutritive  factors  are  satisfied, 
should  contain  at  least,  .45  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide.  This 


22 


Wisconsin  Kesearch  Bulletin  49 


figure  may  not  apply  to  a ration  containing  some  fresh,  green 
materials. 

6.  Brief  presentation  is  made  of  an  hypothesis  explaining 
the  results  secured  with  suggestions  for  future  work.  Further- 
more, attention  is  called  to  the  practical  significance  of  these 
studies  as  relating  particularly  to  forage  and  acid  soils. 


Fig-.  1.  Cow  No.  648  and  her  calf.  Illustrates  how  disaster  in  reproduction 
will  follow'  the  continuous  use  of  a ration  of  ground  oats  and  oat  straw  in 
the  proportion  of  1 :1.  Too  poor  mineral  content  of  the  straw'  w'as  the  primary 
cause  of  this  result. 

Fig.  2.  Cow  No.  661  and  her  calf.  Fed  the  same  ration  as  1 with  a simi- 
lar result. 

Fig-.  3.  Cow  No.  653  and  her  calf.  Fed  a ration  of  ground  oats  and  oat 
straw- — 2 pounds  of  butter  fat  per  100  pounds  of  grain.  Dead  or  w-eak  calves 
were  produced.  The  addition  of  more  fat  soluble  vitamine  did  not,  as  a 
single  addition,  improve  this  ration  for  reproduction. 


Fift-.  1.  Cow  No.  656  and  lier  calf.  Fed  the  same  ration  as  1 with  results 
of  a similar  character.  Note  deflection  of  the  head  and  neck  in  both  these 
cases. 

1^'ig.  5.  Cow  No.  660  and  her  calf.  Improving  the  oat  plant  ration  with 
casein  addition  did  not  prevent  disaster  in  reproduction.  The  ration  fed 
consisted  of  6.7  parts  of  ground  oats.  0.3  parts  of  casein  and  7 parts  of  oat 
straw. 

Fig.  6.  Cow  No.  670  and  her  calf.  The  ration  fed  was  a duplicate  of  that 
used  for  No.  660  and  the  results  were  of  the  same  order.  Weak,  premature 
calves  wei'e  born  in  both  cases. 


Fig.  7.  Showing  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  both  casein  and  butter  fat 
to  a ration  made  from  the  oat  plant.  The  two  improvements  were  ineffective 
in  making  the  ration  a suitable  one  for  reproduction.  Cow  No.  670  received 
6.7  parts  of  ground  oats,  0.3  parts  of  casein,  7 parts  of  oat  straw  and  2 
pounds  of  i)utter  fat  to  10  0 pounds  of  grain.  Tlie  calf  was  born  dead. 

Fig.  8.  A duplicate  of  proceeding  both  in  ration  and  results.  Cow  No. 
671.  The  calf  was  extremely  weak. 


Tlie  effect  of  calcium  additions  to  the  oat  plant  ration. 

Fig.  9.  Cow  No.  676  and  her  calf.  She  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of 
gi'ound  oats,  7 parts  of  oat  straw  and  2 pounds  of  wood  ashes  per  100  pounds 
of  grain.  A successful  reproduction  resulted. 

Fig.  II).  Cow  No.  668  and  her  calf.  She  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of 
ground  oats.  7 i>ai-ts  of  oat  straw — 2 pounds  of  calcium  acetate  to  100  pounds 
of  grain.  Another  successful  reproduction. 

Fig.  11.  Cow  No.  660  and  her  calf.  This  animal  received  a ration  of  6.7 
Palis  of  whole  oats,  0.2  jiarts  of  casein.  7 parts  of  oat  straw  and  2 pounds 
of  ground  r’oek  phosphate  to  100  pounds  of  grain.  A fairly  successful  repro- 
diuiion.  Nott'  the  recoi'd  of  this  same  cow  in  5. 

Fig.  12.  (\)w  No.  O.IO  and  her  calf.  She  received  7 parts  of  whole  oats, 

7 parts  of  oat  straw.  2 pounds  of  butter  fat  and  2 ])ounds  of  calcium  acetate 

to  10(1  pounds  of  grain.  A fair  success  in  reproduction  resulted.  Note  the 
i-ecord  of  this  cow  in  4. 

Fig.  i:l.  Cow  No.  671  and  her  calf.  She  received  a ration  of  6.7  parts 

whole  oats.  0.2  parts  of  casein,  7 parts  of  oat  stravc,  2 pounds  of  butter  fat 

and  2 i)ounds  of  wood  ashes  to  100  pounds  of  grain.  A fairly  strong  calf 
was  produced.  Contrast  this  record  with  the  record  of  this  cow  in  8, 


Fig-.  14.  Effect  on  reproduction  of  substituting-  corn  silage  for  part  of  the 
oat  straw.  Cow  Xo.  656  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  3.5  parts 
of  oat  straw  and  12  parts  of  corn  silage.  A strong,  vigorous  calf  resulted. 

Fig.  15.  A duplicate  of  proceeding.  Cow  Xo.  653  on  the  same  ration  pro- 
duced a thrifty,  strong  calf,  but  the  cow  did  not  “clean”  naturally.  These 
rations  were  probably  dangerously  near  the  lowest  limit  of  mineral  intake 
possible  for  successful  reproduction. 

Fig.  16.  Effect  of  substituting  alfalfa  hay  for  part  of  oat  straw.  Cow  Xo. 
655  produced  a strong  84-pound  calf  on  a ration  consisting  of  7 parts  of 
whole  oats,  4 parts  of  oats  straw  and  3 parts  of  alfalfa. 


I'"iK.  17.  Tlie  rocord  of  cow  No.  6o7  is  a duplicate  in  ration  and  result  of 
IG.  A strong;'  80-pound  calf  resulted  ; both  cows  “cleaned”  naturally. 

Complete  disi)lacement  of  the  oat  straw  with  corn  stover  results  in  suc- 
cessful reproduction. 

Fi.er.  18.  Cow  No.  659  on  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats  and  7 parts  of 
coi'ii  stover  produced  a calf  of  fair  vigor  in  tlie  first  gestation  period. 

Fig.  19.  In  the  second  gestation  period  cow  No.  659  produced  a very 
strong  calf  with  tlie  same  ration. 


Fig-.  20.  A duplication  of  18  and  19.  Cow  No.  662  likewise  produced  a 
strong-  offspring  on  this  ration  of  whole  oats  and  corn  stover. 

Complete  displacement  of  oat  straw  with  clover  hay  was  very  successful. 

Fig-.  21.  Cow  No.  680  produced  a 94-pound,  strong-,  male  calf  on  a ration 
of  7 parts  of  ground  oats  and  7 parts  of  clover  hay. 

Fig-.  22.  Cow  No.  671  and  calf.  On  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats. 
2 parts  of  clover  hay  and  5 parts  of  corn  stover  a very  successful  reproduc- 
tion followed. 


Marsh  liay  as  a successful  roughage  and  substitute  for  oat  straw.  The 
hay  was  grown  on  an  alkaline  marsh. 

Fig.  23.  Cow  No.  659  and  calf.  A record  of  reproduction  on  a ration  of 
7 parts  of  whole  oats  and  7 parts  of  marsh  hay. 

Fig.  24.  Duplicate  of  preceeding.  Cow  No.  662  on  the  same  ration  also 
produced  a strong,  vigorous  calf.  Both  cows  “cleaned”  naturally. 


Research  Bulletin  50 


September,  1921 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  Marsh 

G.  R.  B.  ELLIOTT,  E.  R.  JONES  and  O.  R.  ZEASMAN 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Description  of  marsh 1 

Open  ditches  failed 2 

Wind  and  gasoline  failed 3 

Electric  power  and  deep  tile  succeeded 5 

Details  of  the  drainage  system 8 

Surface,  soil,  and  tile  examined 12 

Examination  of  tile 14 

Settlement  of  tile 14 

Rate  of  settlement  on  marsh  surface 14 

Decrease  in  weight  with  decay 15 

Iron  bacteria  20 

Pump  and  power  measurements .* 23 

Dry  weather  seepage 24 

Areas  supplying  seepage  water 26 

Measurements  in  1914 26 

Height  of  water  table 27 

Investigations  with  cement  tile 29 

Drained  peat  turns 30 

Cost  of  drainage 30 

Conclusions  32 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  Marsh 

G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  E.  R.  Jones  and  O.  R.  Zeasman 

The  farm  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  contains  about  130  acres  of  low  land  adjacent 
to  Lake  Mendota.  The  surface  of  nearly  80  acres  of  this  is  lower 
than  the  lake.  In  1910  this  surface  was  level  with  the  lake,  rising 
and  falling  as  the  lake  rose  and  fell.  It  was  a “floating”  bog  or 
a “lake-level”  marsh. 

Since  then,  all  but  about  5 acres  left  for  comparison  has 
been  tile  drained.  An  electrically  driven,  automatically  con- 
trolled pump,  lifting  water  7 feet  out  of  a reservoir  into  the  lake, 
furnishes  the  outlet.  Lines  of  tile  generally  4 rods  apart,  from 
3 to  5 feet  deep,  and  discharging  into  mains  that  lead  to  the 
reservoir,  effect  the  internal  drainage.  A turnpike  along  the 
-lake  acts  as  a dike  to  keep  back  the  lake  water.  A ditch  and  a 
dike  surrounding  the  low  area  act  like  an  eave  trough  to  catch 
the  surface  water  from  the  surrounding  hills  and  carry  it  to  the 
lake  without  pumping.  This  diversion  ditch  is  to  protect  the  area 
so  that  only  the  seepage  from  the  hills  and  the  lake  and  the  rain- 
fall normal  to  the  tract  has  to  be  pumped. 


i. 


FTG.  1.— FROM  CAT -TAILS  TO  CORN. 

The  marsh  on  the  right  of  the  ditch  shows  its  original  condition. 


2 Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 

The  area  is  a true  peat  bog  of  the  alkaline  type.  The  peat  is 
from  .1  to  6 feet  deep  and  lies  on  a thin  bed  of  marl  which  in 
places  blends  into  silt  or  clay,  varying  in  thickness  up  to  18 
inches.  Beneath  the  silt  or  clay  is  water-bearing  sand  in  some 
places  interbedded  or  intimately  mixed  with  shell  marl.  So  great 
was  the  artesian  pressure  in  this  sand  that  water  would  rise  in  a 
pipe  2 feet  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the  marsh. 

The  drainage  of  this  marsh  was  started  in  1910.  This  is  a 
report  of  the  experience  of  ten  years  that  has  resulted  in  the  pres- 
ent drainage  system.  The  drainage  is  now  such  that  good  crops  of 
corn,  buckwheat,  timothy  and  alsike  are  harvested  even  in 
wet  years. 


FIG.  2.— HOW  THE  MARSH  LOOKS 


About  80  acres  of  the  drained  portion  of  the  marsh  is  shown,  crops 
of  1920.  The  lake  ife  immediately  beyond  the  row  of  willow  trees  in  the 
background. 

Open  Ditches  Failed 

This  tract  has  given  us  a splendid  opportunity  to  carry  on  ex- 
perimental work  in  drainage.  A record  of  the  mistakes  as  well 
as  successes  is  worth  reading  from  the  experimental  point  of  view. 
In  1910,  open  ditches  were  dug  16  rods  apart  over  about  80  acres. 
They  were  1 foot  wide  at  the  bottom,  4 feet  deep,  and  5 feet  wide 
at  the  top,  but  lateral  pressure  in  the  wet  soil  soon  narrowed 
the  top  width  to  about  3 feet.  The  soil  was  so  peaty  that 
the  slopes  have  stood  up  well.  In  one  ditch  that  has  not  been 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


3 


filled  up,  the  spade  marks  ten  years  old  are  still  visible  on  the 
slopes.  Nevertheless,  the  sides  undermined  and  broke  off  in 
places.  Particles  of  floating  peat  lodged  against  weeds,  straws, 
or  sticks  that  found  their  way  into  ditches,  so  that  the  ditches  had 
to  be  cleaned  out  about  once  a month.  All  of  these  ditches,  aggre- 
gating 880  rods,  were  connected  with  the  reservoir  from  which  the 
water  was  pumped  into  the  lake. 

It  was  hoped  that  these  ditches  would  permit  the  soil  to  settle 
and  become  firm  and  dry,  so  that  the  wild  marsh  grass  could  be 
harvested  where  the  cat-tails  and  willow  brush  were  not  too 
thick.  The  wire  grass,  and  in  places  the  blue  joint,  grew  luxuri- 
antly but  the  ground  was  too  soft  and  wet  for  horses.  They 
mired  within  10  feet  of  the  empty  ditches  even  when  wearing 
bog  shoes.  The  more  valuable  grass  was  cut  with  a scythe  and 
carried  off  on  poles.  The  rest  was  not  cut  at  all. 

Wind  and  Gasoline  Failed 


A geared  windmill  was  erected  to  run  a bucket  water  elevator. 
A 16-inch  reverse-turbine  pump  was  installed  to  supplement  the 


FIG.  3.— A.  THE  AUGER  PUMP 

Its  big-  advantage  is  that  sticks  or  other  debris  do  not  clog  it.  Its 
efficiency  is  about  40  per  cent  with  600  revolutions  per  minute  lifting 
2780  gallons  per  minute  5 feet  high  and  requiring  a 9 to  13  h.  p.  motor. 
Lower  speed  gives  less  efficiency. 

B.  THE  REVERSE  TURBINE-PUMP 

An  efficiency  of  40  per  cent  has  been  recorded  with  400  revolutions  a 
minute,  lifting  2780  gallons  per  minute  5 feet  high  and  requiring  an  8 
to  10  h,  p.  motor. 


4 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


elevator.  This  was  run  by  a 12  h.  p.  gasoline  engine.  In  1910  the 
lift  was  about  5 feet.  It  was  soon  evident  that  the  amount  of 
water  lifted  by  the  windmill  and  elevator  was  small  in  comparison 
to  that  which  had  to  be  pumped  and  the  wind  power  was  aban- 
doned after  a trial  of  about  two  months.  An  attendant  started  the 
gasoline  engine  and  turbine  pump  and  emptied  the  ditches  regu- 


FIG.  4.— THE  PUMP  HOUSE 

The  foundation  had  to  be  heavily  reinforced  because  of  the  soft  foot- 
ing-. The  crack  in  the  wall  is  due  to  pouring  the  concrete  at  different 
times. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


5 


larly  three  times  a day,  the  last  being  at  5 o’clock.  By  the  next 
morning  the  water  in  the  ditches  would  be  within  a few  inches  of 
the  top.  The  pump  would  empty  the  ditches,  aggregating  880  rods 
in  about  an  hour,  ordinarily.  During  rainy  weather  the  pump  was 
started  more  frequently  or  was  run  for  two  hours  or  more  at  a 
time. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  soil  could  not  be  made  dry 
enough  so  long  as  the  ditches  were  allowed  to  fill  up  with  water 
during  the  night.  It  was  too  expensive  to  dig  a reservoir  any 
larger  than  10  feet  by  50  feet  and  this  did  not  have  enough  storage 
capacity  to  last  all  night. 

Electric  Power  and  Deep  Tile  Succeeded 

The  efficiency  of  frequent  pumping  and  tiling  was  tested  in 
1914.  With  the  aid  of  two  students  the  gasoline  engine  and  pump 
was  started  every  three  hours  or  of tener  during  the  night ; and  a 
farm  hand  did  the  same  during  the  day.  The  experiment  began 
April  20,  1914,  and  continued  for  twenty  days. 

The  students  had  previously  laid  two  lines  of  4-inch  tile  300 
feet  long  and  2 rods  apart,  one  line  being  1 rod  from  an  open 
ditch.  The  gradient  was  .1  for  each  100  feet.  They  were  3.0 
feet  deep  at  the  outlet  and  about  2.5  at  the  head.  The  shallow- 
ness of  the  reservoir  did  not  permit  greater  depth. 

On  May  8 the  tiled  plot  was  plowed  with  horses.  This  was  the 
first  plowing  that  had  ever  been  possible  on  the  lake-level  marsh. 
A small  portion  at  the  upper  end  of  the  lines  of  tile  where  the 
water  table  in  the  observation  holes  came  within  2 feet  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  w”as  too  wet  even  then  to  hold  up  the  horses. 

The  experiment  proved  that  if  the  tile  could  be  laid  deep  enough 
and  if  the  pumping  were  done  at  such  frequent  intervals  that 
the  tile  outlets  did  not  become  submerged,  the  lake-level  marsh 
could  be  drained  and  plowed.  The  proposition  seemed  sufficiently 
feasible  to  warrant  the  installation  of  electric  power  which  lends 
itself  admirably  to  automatic  control.  A 10  h.  p.  electric  motor 
was  installed.  A float  on  the  water  in  the  reservoir  connected  with 
a switch  started  the  pump  just  before  the  tile  became  submerged 


6 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


m 

W 

M 

u 

O 

« 

§ 

H 

« 

O 

Q 

H 


lO 

2 


There  are  three  pump  chambers  with  pumps  installed  in  two  of  them,  one  for  steady  use  and  the  others  for 
emergencies.  The  foundation  is  deep  enough  to  take  care  of  future  settling  of  the  marsh. 


Pump  DraiNag£  of  the  University  Marsh 


/ 


and  stopped  it  when  the  reservoir  was  empty.  The  reservoir 
was  deepened  a trifle  and  more  tile  were  laid  in  1914.  From 
7 to  15  acres  has  been  tiled  every  year  since  that  time. 

For  several  years  plots  16  rods  wide  had  ditches  on  three  sides 
of  them  in  which  the  water  was  kept  feet  below  the  surface 
by  pumping  day  and  night.  Yet  they  never  became  dry  enough 
even  during  a summer  drouth  to  permit  the  marsh  grass  to  be 
mowed  with  horses.  It  was  not  until  lines  of  tile  4 rods  apart 
and  about  4 feet  deep  were  laid  that  satisfactory  drainage  resulted. 
Where  the  depth  of  the  reservoir  and  pump  limited  the  depth  of 
the  tile  to  3 feet,  the  lines  had  to  be  2 rods  apart  to  permit 
plowing.  Furthermore,  the  peat  above  the  tile  has  shrunk  with 
drainage  and  decomposition.  Tile  that  formerly  had  4 feet  of 
peat  over  them  now  have  only  about  3 feet,  and  those  that  had  3 
feet  now  have  but  little  more  than  2 feet.  In  1919  the  shallower 
reservoir  was  deepened  again  and  these  shallow  lines  are  now 
being  dug  up  and  relaid  at  a greater  depth — in  some  places  5 feet 
deep. 

The  Soils  Department  in  1919  and  1920  ran  a series  of  tests 
on  a portion  of  the  marsh  that  was  tiled  in  1918.  These  tests 
show  that  the  yield  of  corn  can  be  raised  from  34.5  to  83.5  bushels 
to  the  acre  by  proper  fertilization. 

A 24-inch  breaking  plow  drawn  by  a tractor  was  found  to  be 
the  best  method  of  breaking  the  marsh.  Thereafter  a disc  plow 
did  better  work  than  a mold-board  plow  because  the  latter  would 
not  scour  due  to  the  looseness  of  the  soil. 

Corn  has  proven  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  crop  on  the  drained 
peat.  Even  the  first  year  after  drainage,  good  crops  of  corn 
result.  This  is  fortunate  because  the  University  Farm  requires  a 
large  area  of  corn  within  hauling  distance  to  fill  its  silos.  Timo- 
thy and  alsike  has  proven  to  be  a good  crop  where  the  tile  were 
unable  to  cope  completely  with  excessive  seepage. 


8 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


: Details  of  the  Drainage  System 

About  15  acres  of  the  west  end  of  the  marsh  was  higher 
than  the  rest,  it  being  from  4 to  7 feet  above  the  normal  lake 
level.  It  was  a “springy”  marsh  kept  wet  by  the  seepage  from 


FIG.  6. — KEI’AIRING  THE  SYSTEM 

The  oi'iginal  tile  drainaRO  system  had  lines  4 rods  apart.  In  some 
places  it  was  necessary  to  put  in  lines  later  midway  between  the  original 
lines.  In  other  places  where  the  lines  were  deeper  and  seepage  was  less, 
satisfactory  drainage  has  resulted  with  lines  8 rods  apart. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


9 


the  upland.  The  parallel  laterals  of  Group  1 were  put  in  4 rods 
apart  to  discharge  into  Main  A.  (See  Fig.  11.)  The  laterals  had  a 
gradient  of  .1  in  100  and  the  main  .05  in  100.  While  the  laterals 
could  not  be  put  as  deep  as  desired,  they  cut  off  the  seepage  fairly 
welU  They  collected  enough  water  to  fill  the  main  at  the  outlet 
of  Line  1,  but  little  or  none  of  the  water  reached  the  outlet.  It 
leaked  back  into  the  soil  along  the  main  and  entered  the  lower 
marsh  from  which  it  had  to  be  pumped,  thus  defeating  the  original 
purpose  which  was  to  carry  this  seepage  to  the  lake  without  pump- 
ling.  Main  A was  dug  up  in  1915  and  relocated  to  carry  the  water 
•directly  to  the  pump. 


FIG.  7. — CORN  POOR  BETWEEN  LINES  OF  TILE 


Taken  near  the  head  of  Lines  8 and  9 Group  VIII  before  Line  29  was 
put  in  for  relief. 

The  history  of  Main  A taught  two  lessons:  (1)  A line  of  tile 
to  cut  off  seepage  effectively  must  have  a liberal  fall;  and  (2) 
when  water  is  carried  in  a tile  through  a soil  that  would  be  other- 
wise dry,  the  roots  of  willow  trees  will  enter  the  tile.  To  obtain 
enough  soil  to  cover  the  tile  properly  it  was  located  on  land 
reasonably  dry  and  about  4 feet  higher  than  the  lake.  A willow 
tree  had  sent  one  root  through  a crack  between  two  tile.  This 
root  sent  out  myriads  of  fibrous  branches  which  after  five  years 
completely  filled  the  8-inch  tile  for  about  15  feet  above  the  point  of 
entrance.  This  was  not  the  direct  cause  of  the  failure  of  this 


10 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


main,  however.  The  heavy  leakage  from  this  main  back  into  the 
marsh  was  observed  the  first  year  after  it  was  laid,  or  before  the 
roots  had  had  time  to  fill  the  tile. 

The  land  drained  by  Group  XI  was  the  most  difficult  to  drain. 
The  soil  was  muck  one  foot  deep  lying  on  about  three  feet  of 


JcTi/Ai  ^iLATm  Bstw££N  cm 

Am  CBOUm  WA7ZU  IN  PSAtJeil, 


FIG.  8. — THE  CORN  SHORTENS  AS  THE  WATER  TABLE  RISES 

Taken  between  Line  1 Group  VIII  and  the  ditch  at  the  side  of  Willow 
Drive. 

clay  under  which  there  was  water-bearing  sand.  To  dry  up  the 
springs  that  broke  through  the  clay,  lines  had  to  be  put  as  close 
together  as  10  feet  in  some  places.  When  the  8-inch  main  tvas 
laid  in  1916  it  was  put  5 feet  deep.  It  was  difficult  but  very  efifec- 
ive  to  get  this  main  down  into  the  water-bearing  sand.  This  so 
relieved  the  pressure  that  springs  4 rods  away  w^ere  dried  up. 
Another  efifectiye  device  was  a column  of  the  vertical  tile  reach- 
ing from  the  bottom  of  the  horizontal  tile  through  the  clay  into 
the  sand.  This  permitted  the  water  to  rise  easily  into  the  tile 
and  escape,  thus  relieving  the  pressure  that  caused  the  springs. 

It  has  been  difficult  to  get  protection  at  all  times  from  the  ditch 
and  dike  on  the  north  and  west  side  of  the  marsh.  Sediment  is 
deposited  in  it  from  the  steep  hillsides  and  it  has  to  be  cleaned 
with  teams  and  scrapers  once  in  two  years.  The  ditch  and  dike 
are  seeded  to  timothy,  but  when  the  grass  is  tall  the  flow  during 
floods  (it  is  dry  the  rest  of  the  time)  is  retarded  and  some  of  the 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


11 


water  overflows  the  dike.  This  dike  has  been  more  successful, 
however,  than  Cinder  Drive,  on  the  south  side  of  which  a ditch 
was  originally  dug  to  carry  the  flood  water  to  the  lake  by  gravity. 
This  ditch  was  so  nearly  level  that  even  in  a small  flood  more 
water  flowed  over  the  drive  near  the  outlet  of  Line  101  than 
flowed  east  into  the  lake.  In  1916  another  drive  about  half  way 
up  the  hill  on  the  south  side  of  the  marsh  was  raised  so  that 
it  catches  the  surface  water ; and  a ditch  on  its  upper  side  carries 


FIG.  9.— HOW  THE  PEAT  SETTLED 

The  tile  were  originally  between  3 and  4 feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
peat.  The  shrinkage  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  peat  laying  above 
the  tile. 


12 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


this  water  to  a creek  entering  the  lake.  Line  117  has  carried 
seepage  better  since  it  has  been  tapped  by  Line  103. 

A glance  at  the  map  shows  that  in  general  the  laterals  of  4 or  5 
inch  tile  are  4 rods  apart,  except  where  excessive  seepage  or 
limited  depth  made  it  necessary  to  put  the  lines  2 rods  apart  or 
closer.  Generally  the  laterals  do  not  exceed  40  rods  in  length. 
The  mains  are  numerous  and  large  enough  -to  compensate  for  the 
limited  gradient  of  .05  in  100,  which  puts  them  deep  enough  to 
afford  the  laterals  a gradient  of  .1  or  .2  in  100  and  a depth  of 
about  4 feet. 

Measurements  in  1914  showed  that  the  third  ditch  from  the  lake 
carried  more  water  than  the  first  one.  It  appeared  that  the  third 
ditch  was  receiving  seepage  both  from  the  lake  and  from  the 
upland.  By  1920  it  was  evident  that  the  line  of  tile  nearest  the 
lake  carried  more  water  than  any  other  lateral  on  the  marsh,  and 
that  the  seepage  from  the  lake  was  increasing.  The  Willow 
Drive,  the  turnpike  diking  off  the  lake,  is  merely  built  up  about  2 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  marsh  and  nothing  has  ever  been 
done  to  strengthen  its  foundation  so  as  to  stop  seepage.  Musk- 
rats have  burrowed  beneath  this  drive  and  repeatedly  these  holes 
have  had  to  be  plugged. 

SURFACE,  SOIL  AND  TILE  EXAMINED 

In  the  fall  of  1919  the  Agricultural  Engineering  Department 
undertook  an  investigation  of  the  conditions  then  obtaining  on 
the  marsh  for  the  purpose,  if  possible,  of  securing  reliable  funda- 
mental information  which  might  be  of  value  in  carrying  out  other 
reclamation  work  throughout  the  state.  The  investigation  included 
a compilation  into  one  system  of  all  the  notes  and  data  on  previous 
experimental  work  and  a comparison  drawn  between  original  and 
recent  conditions,  particularly  as  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  soil 
volume.  The  map  (Figure  11)  and  Table  1 give  the  results  in 
detail. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


13 


Table  I. — Settling  of  Tile  and  Surface.  Elevations  in  1920 


Lines 

Date  of 
laying 

Number  of 
stations 

Average 
surf.  elev. 
when  laid 

Average 
depth 
when  laid 

Surface 

settle- 

ment 

Tile 

settle- 

ment 

I — 0 to  6- 

1910 

64 

854.5 

3;07 

.406 

.107 

V— 6 to  9 

1919 

15 

848.8 

3.79  ' 





V— 10  to  12 

1919 

9 

849.4 

3.51 

V— 13  to  19 

1918 

21 

848.8 

3.71 

T298 

Ti89 

V— 20  to  23_ - 

1916 

25 

848.7 

3.76 

.680 

.081 

V— 23  to  32 

1916 

33 

849.8 

3.83 

.591 

.008 

VII— 1 to  7 

1914 

27 

848.7 

3.35 

.760 

.037 

VIII— 6a  

.1914 

1 2 

849.0 

3.16 

.805 

.215 

VIII— 7 to  16. 

1916 

1 

850.1 

3.77 

.660 

.054 

Lines  Remarks 

I-  0 to  6 Peat  or  muck  to  1.5;  clay  to  4.5;  sand  beneath 
V 6 to  9 Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Settlement  not  measured 
V-10  to  12  Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Settlement  not  measured 
V-13  to  19  Peat  4 to  6 feet.  One  Station  Line  6 excluded 

V-20  to  23  Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Seven  stations  of  Line  23 

V-23  to  32  Peat  2 to  4 feet.  Five  stations  of  Line  23 
VII-  1 to  7 Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Near  pump  house 

VIII-6a  Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Near  pump  house 

VIII-  7 to  16  Peat  4 to  6 feet.  Receives  upland  seepage.  Two  stations 
Line  10,  one  station  Line  11,  and  one  station  Line  15  ex- 
cluded. 

Settlement  of  surface  levels  showed  that  the  surface  of  Plot  S 
(surface  drained  for  six  years  but  not  tiled)  had  settled  .4  feet 
below  the  marsh  on  the  lake  side  of  the  drive  that  serves  as  a 
dike.  While  Plot  S was  too  wet  to  plow,  it  did  get  enough  drain- 
age to  change  the  character  of  its  wild  vegetation.  The  land  tiled 
in  1914  had  settled  about  .75  feet  by  1920.  Practically  all  of  the 
shrinkage  had  taken  place  in  the  peat  above  the  tile,  and  settling 
of  the  tile  themselves  was  comparatively  small.  A comparison 
of  the  levels  taken  on  the  marsh  surface  in  1910  and  1914  when 
the  automatically  controlled  pump  was  installed  showed  that  there 
was  practically  no  settlement  during  those  four  years  of  intermit- 
tent drainage. 

The  settlement  varied  with  the  seepage.  Group  V Lines  20  to 
23  laid  in  1916,  underlaid  by  marl  and  water-bearing  sand,  and 
receiving  much  seepage  showed  more  surface  settlement  than 
Group  V Lines  24  to  32  laid  in  1916,  where  the  subsoil  was  clay 
and  the  seepage  was  less.  The  peat  lying  on  the  water-bearing  sand 
was  buoyed  up  by  the  pressure  from  below  and  the  settlement 
was  great  when  that  pressure  was  relieved  by  drainage.  Group 
VIII,  Lines  4,  5,  6,  19  and  20,  overlying  submerged  tongues  of 
sand  causing  great  seepage  both  from  the  lake  and  the  hills. 


14 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


showed  the  remarkable  surface  settlement  of  nearly  one  foot 
in  two  years. 

Examination  of  Tile. — Complete  levels  were  run  through 
the  body  of  the  marsh  both  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
on  the  tile,  using  the  same  stationing  as  was  used  in  laying  out 
the  original  work.  For  the  purpose  of  getting  the  grade  of 
the  tile,  a steel  rod  of  known  length  was  thrust  down  onto  the 
tile,  care  being  taken  that  the  rod  rested  on  the  top  of  the 
convex  surface.  Lines  of  tile  were  opened  for  the  purpose  of 
examining  their  condition.  This  was  done  for  the  most  part 
in  groups,  a group  consisting  of  tile  of  the  same  kind  and  laid 
under  similar  conditions.  If  two  or  three  pits  in  a group 
showed  no  evidence  of  unusual  conditions,  the  group  was 
assumed  to  be  uniform,  but  if  any  unusual  conditions  were 
exposed  further  openings  were  made  in  sufficient  number  to 
ascertain  the  facts  and,  if  possible,  their  cause. 

Settlement  of  Tile. — Only  two  groups  of  tile  were  found  to 
be  materially  below  grade.  Group  VIII  Lines  4 to  20  averaged 
.25  feet  in  settlement  of  tile.  In  this  group  the  greatest  varia- 
tion was  shown  by  the  levels  to  be  on  the  outer  ends  of  the 
lines  where  the  marsh  was  narrow  and  subject  to  the  most 
seepage.  The  last  two  stations  of  VIII  Line  6 sank  an  aver- 
age of  .53  feet  while  the  surface  above  sank  1.05  feet.  Group 
VIII  Line  19  sank  .35  feet  and  the  surface  .95  feet.  The  uni- 
formity of  settlement  in  the  outer  ends  of  all  the  lines  shows 
that  the  discrepancy  was  not  due  to  any  error  in  laying  the 
tile  or  in  the  levels,  but  to  a general  subsidence  when  the  water 
was  drawn  off. 

Group  V Lines  13  to  19  were  laid  by  a careless  contractor 
who  got  his  ditches  too  deep  iii  places.  To  remedy  this  defect 
the  lower  grade  was  carried  through  to  the  outlet.  This  altera- 
tion does  not  appear  in  the  notes  and  the  tile  grades  were 
thrown  out. 

Rate  of  Settlement  on  Marsh  Surface. — The  time  over  which 
the  records  extend  is  not  sufficient  to  establish  an  absolute 
rate  of  settlement  of  the  marsh  surface,  but  there  are  sufficient 
data  on  which  to  base  an  estimate.  This  seems  to  be  very 
close  to  .25  feet  a year  for  the  first  two  years.  After  this  the 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


15 


rate  drops  off  rapidly  until  at  five  years  the  total  settlement 
has  reached  .76  and  the  rate  of  settlement  about  .04  feet 
inch)  a year  but  slowly  decreasing.  (The  accompanying  diagram 
Fig.  9 shows  this  more  fully.)  The  settling  for  one  year  is 
the  average  of  21,  for  two  years  44,  for  three  years  105,  and  for 

five  years  27  observations, 
the  average  depth  of  the 
tile  when  laid  being  about 
3.7  feet. 

Decrease  in  Weight 
with  Decay. — In  order  to 
ascertain  what  became  of 
the  material  which  shrank 
away  upon  drainage,  pits 
were  dug — one  in  the  cul- 
tivated portion  (middle  of 
Group  VII),  and  the 
other  in  the  untiled  marsh 
(Plot  S) — in  order  that 
the  original  conditions 
should  be  as  nearly  alike 
as  possible.  From  these 
pits,  samples  were  taken  at 
intervals  of  a foot.  Be- 
fore the  samples  had  time 
to  dry  they  were  cut  into 
6-inch  cubes  and  carefully 
weighed.  They  were  then 
dried  to  constant  weight 
at  110°C  and  again 

weighed.  The  results  are 
shown  in  Table  II.  The 
difference  between  the 

weights  of  the  bottom 
samples  is  most  remark- 
able and  probably  repre- 
sents the  mineral  matter 

a clay  tile  lying’  on  the  surface  of  the  brought  into  the  peat  by 

ground  throughout  the  winter  freezes  and  . 

thaws  suddenly  a great  many  times.  This  ascending  Seepage  waters, 
splits  the  walls  and  the  tile  are  damaged  rpi  t r 4.  r aI,- 

more  in  a single  winter  than  they  would  t ne  last  lOOt  Ol  tne 

be  in  100  years  if  covered  with  2 feet  or  .-i  1 

more  of  earth.  untiled  soil  was  entirely 


FROST  ACTION 


FIG.  10.— THIS  TILE  WAS  ABUSED 


marsh 

help  locate  the  principal  lines  of  tiles.  Others  can  be  located  from  these. 


Tiled  and  cultivated  six  years  Untiled 


18 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


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19 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 

^ different  in  character  from  any  other  sample  taken  out  It 
-j  was  extremely  soft  and  light  buff  in  color,  darkening  to  almost 
black  within  five  minutes  after  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
column  of  tiled  soil  one  foot  square  and  extending  from  eleva- 
tion  843.44  to  the  surface,  seems  to  have  retained  its  original 
weight  fairly  well  even  though  it  has  lost  in  volume.  The  weight 
of  each  cubic  foot  or  portion  thereof  was  calculated  from  the 


20 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


southerly  end  the  land  dropped  into  a hollow  or  swale  in 
which  the  clay  was  covered  by  about  one  foot  of  black  muck. 
In  order  that  the  tile  should  not  be  too  deep  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  distance  the  tile  were  necessarily  shallow  in  passing 
through  the  low  ground.  In  the  interval  since  the  tile  were 
laid  the  black  muck  had  entirely  rotted  away  and  disappeared 
leaving  the  tile  less  than  a foot  deep.  Here  they  were  exposed 
to  repeated  freezing  and  thawing  and  probably  had  been  for 
years.  The  tile  were  of  good  clay  and  well  burned.  No  trace 
of  any  failure  or  disintegration  showed.  At  the  outlet  of  the 
easterly  main,  where  it  enters  the  pump  house  reservoir,  six 
feet  of  the  12-inch  clay  tile  exposed  to  direct  frost  action 
scaled  off  and  collapsed  in  two  winters. 

Even  with  a light  covering  the  freezing  takes  place  slowly; 
the  entire  wall  of  the  tile  is  the  same  temperature  and  forma- 
tion of  ice  crystals  goes  on  uniformly.  Any  excess  moisture 
which  may  develop,  due  to  expansion  of  the  freezing  water, 
is  permitted  to  escape  through  the  partially  frozen  walls  and 
no  rupture  takes  place.  Such  ruptures  do  occur  at  an  exposed 
outlet  subject  to  sudden  freezing.  This  is  well  illustrated  by 
Figure  10.  This  was  a 3-inch  clay  tile  which  was  for  ten  years 
in  an  underdrain,  then  taken  up  in  perfect  condition  and  re- 
placed by  larger  tile.  It  then  lay  on  the  ground  for  five 
winters  with  the  result  as  shown.  The  upper  surface  is  more 
than  half  scaled  away  while  the  lower  side  which  lay  on  the 
ground  and  was  protected  from  direct  frost  is  still  in  nearly 
perfect  condition. 

Iron  Bacteria. — While  the  work  of  examination  of  the  marsh 
was  going  on  an  accident  caused  a stoppage  of  the  pump.  As 
the  stoppage  occurred  during  the  night  it  was  not  noticed  until 
the  water  had  risen  to  within  about  two  feet  of  the  surface  of 
the  land.  When  the  pump  was  started  again  a great  volume 
of  water  had  to  be  taken  care  of.  As  there  was  considerable 
“head”  above  the  mains,  the  water  flowed  much  more  rapidly 
than  at  ordinary  times.  The  easterly  main,  marked  VIITO  on 
the  map,  brought  into  the  reservoir  small  flocculent  orange 
colored  masses  which  floated  in  the  water  and  slowly  settled. 
These  masses  had  evidently  been  torn  from  the  walls  of  the 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


21 


tile  by  the  rush  of  water.  Upon  examination  a similar  growth 
was  found  in  the  ditch  beside  Willow  Drive.  A specimen  was 
taken  to  Dr.  E.  B.  Fred  of  the  Agricultural  Bacteriology  De- 
partment who  identified  it  as  iron  bacteria,  chiefly  Leptothrix 
ochracea  (chlamydothrix  ochracea),  though  several  other  forms 
were  also  present. 


FODS 


WATKfi  TABLE 
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May-  - A After  PAiNrALL  or  1,25 mcH£^ 
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FIG.  13.— WATER  TABLE  TOO  HIGH 

Only  near  the  open  ditches  or  a line  of  tile  is  the  water  table  where 
it  should  be — three  feet  below  the  surface. 


As  the  growth  of  these  organisms  might  have  a very  impor- 
tant bearing  on  the  efficiency  of  the  tile,  the  broken  masses 
were  traced  to  their  point  of  growth.  Two  systems  were 
found  to  be  affected,  both  of  them  near  the  lake.  Group  VII, 
Lines  1,  2,  3,  4 and  5 were  coated  on  the  inside  below  the 
water  line  with  masses  that  would  average  from  ^ to  ^ of 
an  inch  in  thickness — principally  along  the  sides.  All  these 
lines  were  of  clay  tile.  Lines  6 and  7 of  the  same  system 
containing  cement  tile  showed  no  bacteria.  Group  VIII,  Lines 
1 to  6 containing  clay  tile  were  heavily  infected  with  masses 
up  to  an  inch  in  thickness.  In  Line  5 one  mass  was  noticed  8 
inches  long  and  reaching  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water  (more 


22 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


than  half  the  size  of  the  tile)  which  was  slowly  moving  down, 
pushed  by  the  water  behind  it.  On  the  other  hand,  no  tile 
which  came  into  the  main  from  the  south  was  infected.  Neither 
was  the  main  into  which  all  tile  emptied  in  common.  The 
boundary  between  the  infected  area  and  the  uninfected  was 
clearly  defined.  Cement  tile  are  inimical  to  these  bacteria. 
So  also  is  seepage  from  the  upland.  The  bacteria  were  abun- 
dant where  the  seepage  from  the  lake  flowed  through  clay  tile. 

Harder*  has  done  exhaustive  research  work  on  deposition 
of  iron  by  various  forms  of  bacteria.  Ehrenberg  in  1836  first 
discovered  that  bacteria  were  active  in  the  depositing  of  iron. 
Harder  groups  the  iron  bacteria  into  three  general  classes:  (1) 
those  which  extract  carbon  dioxide  from  ferrous  bicarbonate 
and  precipitate  iron  hydroxide  in  their  cell  walls ; (2)  those 
which  do  not  require  ferrous  bicarbonate  for  their  life  process 
but  precipitate  iron  hydroxide  if  soluble  iron  salts  are  pres- 
ent; (3)  those  which  attack  organic  salts  using  the  organic 
portion  as  a food  and  so  precipitating  the  iron.  Leptothrix 
belongs  to  the  second  class.  Nearly  all  are  what  is  known  as 
“higher  bacteria” — slender  filamentous  forms  made  of  single 
elongated  cells  joined  end  to  end.  Some  are  flattened  and 
double  back  on  themselves  forming  a double  spiral.  Others 
are  cylindrical  and  double  back  on  themselves  in  a double 
spiral,  but  the  greater  number  are  single  threads.  All  of  them 
have  the  peculiar  power  of  precipitating  hydroxide  of  iron 
which  later  becomes  oxidized  and  forms  hydrated  sesquioxide 
of  iron  which  becomes  bog  iron  ore.  Leptothrix  is  primarily  a 
soil  organism  and  can  grow  without  the  assistance  of  iron  com- 
pounds. Its  habitat  is,  however,  in  bogs  where  iron  is  present 
in  considerable  quantity,  some  of  it  in  the  form  of  organic 
salts. 

During  the  winter  (1919-1920)  the  masses  of  bacteria  in  the 
tile  in  the  marsh  became  much  smaller  but  persisted  in  the 
ditch  beside  Willow  Drive.  In  fact  they  grew  faster  there,  prob- 
ably due  to  a higher  lake  level  and  more  abundant  water.  The 
masses  in  the  tile  grew  again  in  the  spring  but  in  the  summer  of 
1920  the  main  into  which  the  infected  tile  emptied  was  lowered. 

•E.  C.  Harder,  “Iron  Depositing  Bacteria  and  Their  Geologic  Relations.” 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


23 


In  the  process  the  laterals  were  dammed  and  drained  several 
times  and  the  rush  of  water  cleaned  them  out.  A month  after 
work  was  finished  the  bacterial  masses  had  again  grown  to  con- 
siderable size. 

There  may  be  many  places  where  tile  are  laid  in  a constant 
flow  of  water,  that  these  organisms  will  give  considerable 
trouble.  In  localities  where  this  occurs  it  seems  best  to  lay 
the  laterals  so  that  they  may  have  a short  sharp  run  to  the 
main  or  to  lay  out  the  system  in  a way  to  let  each  lateral  catch 
some  upland  water.  A temporary  cure  for  iron  bacteria  would 
be  a small  application  of  copper  sulphate.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  amount  of  the  chemical  used  is  not  enough  to 
kill  fish  in  the  stream  or  lake  into  which  the  drains  empty. 
Trout  die  if  copper  sulphate  is  used  stronger  than  .14  parts 
per  million  while  it  takes  .2  and  .3  parts  per  million  to  kill 
leptothrix.  Pickerel,  perch  and  black  bass,  however,  in  the 
order  named,  can  endure  copper  sulphate  in  strengths  rang- 
ing from  .4  to  2.1  parts  per  million.  By  stopping  a drain  tem- 
porarily, a concentrated  solution  may  be  kept  for  a time  in 
contact  with  the  bacteria.  Upon  discharging  this  into  a creek 
or  lake,  this  solution  becomes  so  diluted  that  even  trout  are 
safe. 

PUMP  AND  POWER  MEASUREMENTS 

Records  of  the  amount  of  electricity  consumed  were  made 
from  May  9 to  June  9,  1916,  and  again  from  October  24  to 
November  25,  1920.  A tested  meter  was  obtained  from  the 
Department  of  Electrical  Engineering.  In  the  1916  test,  1760 
kilowatt  hours  were  consumed  in  31  days;  and  in  1920,  1830 
kilowatt  hours  were  consumed  in  32  days.  In  each  case  it 
averaged  about  57  kilowatt  hours  a day  for  the  whole  period. 
The  area  drained  is  about  130  acres.  At  2 cents  a kilowatt 
hour  the  cost  of  power  is  approximately  a cent  an  acre  a day. 
During  the  1920  test  the  rainfall  amounted  to  1.75  inches 
which  fell  as  follows:  October  26 — .06;  November  1 — .68; 
November  6 — .57;  November  8 — .15;  and  November  21 — .27. 
From  November  5 to  15  the  power  consumed  averaged  92 
kilowatt  hours  a day,  but  from  November  15  to  18  it  averaged 


24 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


only  23  kilowatt  hours  a day.  In  1916  there  were  several  5 
day  periods  when  the  power  consumption  was  less  than  40 
kilowatt  hours  a day. 

Dry  Weather  Seepage — On  October  24,  1920,  a detailed 
study  of  the  operation  of  the  pump  was  made  from  6 a.  m.  to 
6 p.  m.  On  that  day  dry  weather  prevailed,  so  that  the  pump- 
ing represented  the  seepage,  ten  days  after  a rain  of  any  conse- 
quence. 

The  pump  is  a 16-inch  auger  having  a two-bladed  impeller, 
each  blade  making  4 inches  more  than  one-half  of  the  circum- 
ference in  length  and  having  a 4^4  inch  lift  in  one-half  revolu- 
tion or  9 inches  in  a whole  revolution.  The  drive  pulley  is  16 
inches.  The  motor  is  a 3 phase,  a.  c.  10  h.  p.  and  has  an  8-inch 
drive  pulley.  The  shafts  are  set  about  12  feet  apart,  and  there 
is  a quarter  turn  in  the  belt  from  the  horizontal  motor  to  the 
vertical  pump  shaft.  The  motor  has  ample  power  to  drive  the 
pump  and  the  speed  remained  constant  at  600  r.p.m. 

The  water  was  measured  as  it  ran  away  from  the  pump  over 
a 34-inch  weir.  It  required  13  seconds  after  the  starting  of  the 
pump  before  the  water  flowed  over  the  weir,  which  it  did  with 
a rush.  At  the  end  of  each  run  the  pump  continued  to  operate 
and  the  water  to  flow  over  the  weir  for  a period  of  4 seconds 
after  the  throwing  out  of  the  switch.  As  the  water  over  the 
weir  died  down  from  full  flow  to  nothing,  it  was  assumed  that 
the  actual  flow  was  equal  to  the  average  flow  for  half  the  time 
or  2 seconds.  The  effective  run  of  the  pump  was  therefore  11 
seconds  less  than  the  actual  time  between  the  opening  and  the 
closing  of  the  switch. 

The  pump  started  and  stopped  39  times  in  12  hours.  It  ran 
a total  of  6,252  seconds.  Subtracting  11  seconds  for  each  of 
the  39  runs  leaves  5,823  seconds  of  effective  pumping  or  about 
2^2  minutes  at  a run.  The  average  head  over  the  34-inch  weir 
was  .55  feet.  For  5,823  seconds  this  gives  a discharge  of  22,457 
cubic  feet  for  the  12  hours.  The  current  consumed  was  10 
kilowatt  hours  in  the  12  hours  or  20  kilowatt  hours  per  day. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


25 


The  elevations  ascertained  were  as  follows : 

Level  of  lake  (feet  above  sea  level) t 848.92 

Level  of  weir  (feet  above  sea  level) 849.34 

Top  of  water  when  pumping  (feet  above  sea  level) 849.89 

Height  of  water  at  start  of  pump  (feet  above  sea  level) 843.43 

Height  of  water  at  stop  of  pump  (feet  above  sea  level).... 841.93 
Height  of  water  at  end  of  back  lash  (feet  above  sea 

level)  842.70 

Height  of  water  over  weir  (feet) 55 

Head  over  pump  at  start  (feet) 6.46 

Head  over  pump  at  stop  (feet) 7.96 

Average  lift  for  the  day  (feet)..'. 7.21 


Every  time  the  pump  stopped,  85.8  cubic  feet  of  water  ran 
back  through  the  pump  into  the  reservoir.  In  39  runs  this 
amounted  to  3,346  cubic  feet  which  \vas  wasted.  It  amounted 
to  15  per  cent  of  the  water  that  went  over  the  weir.  Since 
this  water  was  lifted  to  a height  averaging  only  one-half 
that  of  the  water  that  went  over  the  weir,  the  waste  of  energy 
is  only  7j^  per  cent.  During  periods  of  heavy  pumping  when 
the  run  of  the  pump  is  6 or  7 minutes,  the  percentage  of  waste 
is  less  than  that. 

The  total  effective  inlet  of  the  pump  is  its  cross-sectional 
area  of  the  pump  minus  the  area  of  its  hub  or  (0.67^x3.1416) — 
(0.162x3. 1416)=!. 33  sq.  ft.  The  lift  being  9 inches  and  the 
speed  10  revolutions  per  second,  the  volume  described  by  each 
revolution  of  the  pump  is  1.33x. 75x10=9. 97  cu.  ft.  per  second, 
as  compared  with  an  actual  discharge  of  3.85  cubic  feet  per 
second.  It  would  seem  that  the  speed  of  the  pump  might  be 
considerably  reduced  without  cutting  down  its  efficiency. 


Table  III. — Source  of  Seepage 


System 

Acres 

drained 

Cu.  ft. 
discharge 
in  12  hrs. 

Discharge 
per  acre 
per  day 

Inches 
from  area 
in  24  hrs. 

Reimarks 

15-in.  main 

80 

2,430 

60.75 

.0156 

Underlaid  by  clay 

8-in.  main 
Balance  of 

13 

10,627 

1,634.92 

.45 

Main  and  laterals  deep  in 
sand 

tract 

37 

9,400 

509.46 

.14 

Includes  reservoir  at  pump 
house  and  20  acres  not 
‘ tUed 

26 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


Areas  Supplying  Seepage  Water. — In  order  to  ascertain 
where  this  water  was  coming  from,  a 9-inch  weir  was  put 
in  at  the  mouth  of  the  15-inch  main  and  an  8-inch  weir  on 
Main  VIII,  20  feet  below  the  triple  junction  at  Station  7+49. 
The  measurements  are  shown  in  Table  III.  The  average  acre 
near  the  lake  had  about  27  times  as  much  seepage  as  the 
average  acre  in  the  80-acre  tract  drained  by  the  15-inch  main. 
Near  the  lake  the  seepage  amounted  to  .45  inches  a day  while 
farther  away  it  was  only  .0156  inches. 


Table  IV. — Daily  Amount  of  Water  Pumped  in  Second-Feet  and 

Acre-Inches 


Period 
pumped  in 
minutes 

Rainfall 

inches 

Average 

lift 

Water  pumped 

Date 

Rate 

second-feet 

Acre-inches 
per  day 

1914 
April  20 

448 

1.78 

14.1 

105.2 

21 

940 

3.42 

4.6 

68.7 

22 

575 

3.74 

3.21 

31.0 

23 

735 

0’03 

4.46 

1 1-2 

14.7 

24 

305 

0.87 

4.50 

1.82 

9.22 

25 

320 



4.51 

2.47 

13.2 

26 

155 

4,17 

1.44 

3.7 

27 

130 

0~23 

4.63 

1.44 

3.14 

28 

325 

0.36 

4.51 

1.59 

8.6 

29 

210 

0.05 

4.58 

1.96 

6.85 

30 

180 

0.01 

4.37 

2.47 

7.41 

May  1 

135 



4.72 

1.34 

3.02 

2 

205 

4.32 

1.80 

6.14 

3 

305 

! il26 

4.05 

2.16 

10.8 

4 

370 

1 

4.18 

2.47 

15.2 

5 

360 

1 " 

4.54 

3.36 

20.16 

6 

510 

4.61 

2.47 

21.0 

7 

225 

0.05 

4.59 

3.36 

12.6 

8 

350 

4.71 

1.82 

10.62 

Totals 

6,783 

2.86 

371.5 

aninutes 

inches 

acre-inches 

Measurements  in  1914. — Table  IV  shows  the  amount  of 
water  that  was  lifted  about  5 feet  by  a 16-inch  reverse-turbine 
pump  driven  by  a 12  h.  p.  gasoline  engine  in  1914.  At  that  time 
about  20  acres  of  the  higher  marsh  were  tiled  but  only  ^ 
acre  of  the  lake-level  marsh  was  tiled.  The  rest  of  it  was 
drained  by  880  rods  of  open  ditches  4 feet  deep.  The  pumping 
amounted  to  20  acre  inches  a day  or  about  .16  inches  from  the 
entire  area.  In  the  19  days  this  amounted  to  3.04  inches  as 
compared  with  a rainfall  for  That  period  of  2.86  inches. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


27 


The  discharge  of  the  pump  was  measured  by  a weir  5 feet 
wide.  The  head  of  the  weir  was  read  at  intervals  during  the 
pumping  period  and  averaged  to  compute  the  discharge.  The 
lift  was  also  recorded  at  intervals  and  averaged.  The  dis- 
charge of  the  pump  was  much  greater  for  the  low  lifts,  but  the 
power  required  was  also  greater. 

The  height  of  the  water  in  Lake  Mendota  varies  as  much  as 
3 feet.  On  June  1,  1919,  it  rose  to  851.90,  according  to  the 
city  engineer  of  Madison.  It  has  been  as  low  as  848.5.  At 
such  low  water  periods  the  flash  boards  of  the  spillway  of  the 
pump  are  taken  out  to  reduce  the  lift. 

HEIGHT  OF  WATER  TABLE 

During  the  pumping  test  in  1914,  observations  were  made 
upon  the  height  of  the  water  table  at  intervals  of  1 rod  be- 
tween the  open  ditches  and  the  two  lines  of  tile  that  were  laid. 
The  results  are  shown  in  Figure  13.  The  rainfall  during  the 
period  is  shown  in  Table  IV.  At  each  observation  pit,  four 


^.s  / 

Wateq  Table  Determinations 

Eftee  FRCM  Se£F>As£ 

— S49 





— .. 

— 

Y 

j 

Peat 

— 

— 

}t!L£ 

— 

•Sand  ■. 

o 

i 

r a S Kotia  4 J 

Uhdcr  CoNom 

r 

QN^ 

f 

r 

6 ■■■ 

// 

Peat 

-N 

■ \ T 

h' 

— 7*7 
- \\  ^ 

M 

-4^  . 

■ 3ano 

0 f £ 

! 3 Soda  4.  3 s T & 

FIG.  14. — BETTER,  BUT  STILL  TOO  WET 

In  Series  2,  the  shallow  tile  belong  to  the  original  system.  The  deeper 
lines  were  installed  later.  Note  how  the  deep,  rather  than  the  shallow 
tile,  affect  the  water  table. 


28 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


5-inch  tile  were  placed  in  a vertical  column  in  a hole,  the  top 
of  the  upper  tile  reaching  about  to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  being  used  as  a reference  point  in  reading  the  height  of 
the  water  in  the  hole.  Even  on  May  7 when  the  water  table 
was  1 foot  below  the  surface,  the  land  was  too  soft  to  hold 
up  the  horses. 


FIG.  15.— POOR  CEMENT  TILE  FAIL 

This  tile  was  made' too  porous.  It  had  been  laid  in  a high  lime  muck 
for  4 years  when  this  picture  was  taken. 


Another  set  of  observations  began  in  November,  1920.  In 
each  hole  five  5-inch  tile  were  placed  in  a vertical  column,  the 
bottom  of  which  reached  to  the  sand  in  each  case.  Figure  14 
shows  the  results  to  date.  During  this  period  the  soil  was  dry 
and  firm  enough  at  the  surface  to  hold  up  horses  or  tractors. 

A peculiar  feature  of  the  observations  now  in  progress  is 
that  the  water  table  directly  over  a line  of  tile  is  in  some  places 
from  4 to  8 inches  higher  than  the  top  of  the  tile,  yet  the  tile 
were  not  more  than  half-full  of  water  which  ran  swiftly  in 
every  case.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  pressure  of  water 
from  below  and  the  slowness  with  which  the  water  moves 
through  the  peat.  It  appears,  however,  that  at  Hole  IX 
Series  B where  the  tile  are  only  2 feet  deep,  the  water  table 
is  as  much  above  the  tile  as  at  Hole  IX  Series  A where  the 
tile  are  more  than  3 feet  deep.  Even  under  these  conditions 
the  deep  tile  are  the  more  efficient.  At  A,  B and  C the  tile 
had  just  been  deepened  and  the  looseness  of  the  peat  over  the 
tile  accounts  for  the  low  water  table  there. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


29 


INVESTIGATIONS  WITH  CEMENT  TILE 

Several  lots  of  cement  tile  were  laid  on  the  University 
Marsh.  At  the  time  they  were  purchased  and  laid  they  were 
thought  to  be  the  best  cement  tile  available.  Nevertheless, 
many  of  them  were  badly  disintegrated  or  had  totally  col- 
lapsed at  the  end  of  six  years.  The  action  of  the  acids  of  the 
peat  is  the  most  probable  cause  of  the  distintegration.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  good  but  not  extra  quality  cement  tile  laid 
in  the  neutral  peat  on  the  University  Marsh  in  October,  1919, 
had  roughened  but  little  by  August,  1921,  and  were  stronger 
than  when  laid. 

Some  cement  tile  manufacturers  are  now  making  an  extra 
quality  tile  with  walls  so  dense  that  the  absorption  of  water  is 
kept  below  10  per  cent  after  5 hours  of  boiling.  The  following 
are  the  minimum  wall  thicknesses : 

4- inch  tile  5/8"  thick  8-inch  tile  13/16"  thick 

5- inch  tile  11/16"  thick  10-inch  tile  7/8"  thick 

6- inch  tile  3/4"  thick  12-inch  tile  1"  thick 

Decreased  wall  thicknesses  may  be  compensated  for  by  in- 
creasing the  density,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  proven  that  they 
will  stand  up  in  an  acid  peat,  unless  the  peat  is  underlaid  with 
clay  in  which  the  tile  are  imbedded.  In  such  peat,  and  in  most 
clays  in  Wisconsin,  extra  quality  cement  tile  are  satisfactory. 
For  beds  of  acid  peat  underlaid  by  sand,  or  those  so  deep  that 
the  tile  are  not  imbedded  in  the  underlying  clay,  it  is  best  for 
the  present  to  give  preference  to  good  hard  burned  shale  or 
clay  tile  even  at  the  expense  of  high  freight  rates  on  such  tile. 

The  findings  on  the  University  Marsh  substantiated  by  similar 
findings  in  20  cases  in  10  counties  in  Wisconsin  should  be  a 
solemn  warning  to  the  manufacturers  of  poor  cement  tile.  The 
poorest  cement  tile  have  been  made  with  small  machines  by  farm- 
ers themselves.  But  little  better  than  these  are  the  cement  tile 
made  by  the  small  plants  not  equipped  with  good  workmen,  good 
materials  or  a steam  curing  device. 


30 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


DRAINED  PEAT  BURNS 

In  August  1919  during  a dry  period,  a careless  workman 
dropped  a lighted  match  on  the  area  drained  by  Group  III.  By 
the  next  morning  about  two  acres  had  burned  over,  burning  the 
peat  to  depths  varying  from  6 to  12  inches.  The  pump  was 
stopped  and  the  water  from  the  lake  was  allowed  to  run  back  to 
put  out  the  fire.  Due  to  the  buoyancy  of  the  soil  and  the  dense 
dry  grass  on  the  surface,  it  was  difficult  to  immerse  all  parts  of 
the  burning  marsh  and  it  took  two  days  to  put  out  the  fire.  By 
that  time  about  4 acres  had  burned  more  or  less.  Usually  the 
ashes  from  burned  peat  helps  the  next  year’s  crop  by  making  the 
potash  more  available,  but  for  reasons  as  yet  unexplained,  the 
crop  of  corn  on  these  four  acres  in  1920  was  poorer  than  in  the 
unburned  area. 

COST  OF  DRAINAGE 

Open  Ditches — Most  of  the  ditching  crew  were  student 

laborers. 

The  original  ditches  1 foot  wide  at  the  bottom,  4 feet  deep  and 
5 feet  wide  at  the  top  were  dug  by  hand.  Men  were  paid  $2.00 
a day  and  the  average  cost  of  the  ditches  was  90  cents  a rod,  for 
the  880  rods.  For  about  100  rods  the  ditches  reached  through  the 
peat  and  one  foot  into  the  underlying  clay.  This  increased  the 
cost.  Where  no  willow  roots  bothered  and  the  peat  was  4 feet 
deep,  the  cost  was  only  about  75  cents  a rod.  The  peat  was  cut 
with  hay  knives  or  spades  into  blocks  containing  about  1 cubic 
foot  and  then  heaved  out  with  manure  hooks. 

While  these  ditches  did  not  dry  the  land  enough  to  prevent 
horses  from  miring,  they  did  make  the  soil  firmer.  It  would  have 
been  difficult  or  impossible  to  lay  the  tile  subsequently  had  not 
these  ditches  been  put  in  first  as  fore-runners.  They  made  the  soil 
firm  enough  so  that  the  trenches  stood  up  well  while  the  tile  were 
being  laid,  and  even  permitted  the  use  of  a caterpillar  tiling  ma- 
chine, although  the  tile  had  to  be  carried  40  rods  or  more  by  hand, 
except  on  Plot  S where  a caterpillar  tractor  was  used  to  draw 
light  loads  of  tile  on  a wagon. 


Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  Marsh 


31 


Protecting  Ditch  and  Dike — Available  roads  were  used  as 
dikes. 

The  ditch  and  dike  at  the  north  side  of  the  marsh  was  made 
about  21/^  feet  deep  and  10  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  earth  ex- 
cavated was  used  to  make  a dike  about  2%  feet  high  in  the  lower 
side.  The  work  was  done  with  teams  and  scrapers  during  May 
1910,  when  the  ground  was  so  wet  that  horses  walked  in  the  ditch 
with  difficulty,  sinking  to  their  fetlocks  in  the  soft  clay.  Here 
there  was  no  peat  at  all  on  the  surface  and  large  boulders  im- 
bedded in  the  clay  had  to  be  blasted  before  they  could  be  handled. 
The  cost  of  this  ditch  was  55  cents  a rod,  figuring  a team  and 
driver  worth  40  cents  an  hour,  and  a laborer  20  cents  an  hour. 

The  Pumping  Plant — This  includes  no  subsequent  repairs. 

The  cost  of  the  pumping  plant  including  2000  feet  of  trans- 
mission line,  two  10  h.p.  motors  with  transformers,  and  auto- 
matic devices ; the  pump  house  with  two  pumps  completely  in- 
stalled, was  about  $2,200. 

The  Tile — This  does  not  include  surveying  nor  supervision. 

The  mains  and  sub-mains  into  which  the  laterals  discharge  ag- 
gregate 90  rods  of  15-inch,  110  rods  of  12-inch,  42  rods  of  10- 
inch,  320  rods  of  8-inch  and  345  rods  of  6-inch  tile.  The  total 
cost  of  these  was  $3,100.  The  laterals  are  8 rods  apart  on  ap- 
proximately 30  acres,  4 rods  apart  on  60  acres,  and  2 rods  apart 
on  40  acres,  with  about  1 acre  that  had  to  have  lines  1 rod  apart 
to  dry  up  all  of  the  persistent  springs.  These  aggregate  about 
6,300  rods  or  nearly  20  miles  and  cost  approximately  $8,000.  All 
but  5 carloads  of  tile  were  bought  and  laid  at  pre-war  prices. 

Cost  Per  Acre — The  total  cost  of  the  drainage  system  may  be 
itemized  as  follows : 


Open  ditches  (later  filled) $790.00 

Protecting  ditches  and  dikes 170.00 

Pumping  plant 2,200.00 

Tile  mains 3,100.00 

Tile  laterals 8,000.00 


Total $14,260.00 


32 


Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  50 


This  brings  the  average  cost  approximately  $110  an  acre  for 
the  130  acres.  The  unusual  seepage  from  the  lake  and  through 
the  underlying  sand  from  the  surrounding  hills  together  with  the 
pumping  made  the  drainage  of  this  marsh  about  100  per  cent 
more  difficult  than  the  average  marsh  land  in  Wisconsin.  Never- 
theless, it  was  profitable  because  of  high  land  values  adjacent  to 
the  University  Farm. 


CONCLUSIONS 

1.  The  shrinkage  of  peat  above  the  tile  is  such  that  tile  may 
have  to  be  relaid  in  from  10  to  20  years. 

2.  Tile  3 feet  deep  are  too  shallow.  Tile  4 feet  deep  and  8 rods 
apart  are  more  efficient  than  tile  3 feet  deep  and  4 rods  apart. 
The  most  efficient  tile  in  the  deep  peat  or  where  seepage  is 
great  are  those  5 feet  deep  acid  peats. 

3.  Well-made  cement  tile  are  satisfactory  in  clay  sub-soils  and 
none  but  the  best  should  be  tolerated  in  any  soil. 

4.  Peat  disintegrates  some  cement  tile.  It  has  not  yet  been 
proven  that  even  the  best  of  cement  tile  will  stand  up  in 
acid  peats,  unless  imbedded  in  underlying  clay. 

5.  The  pump  should  be  started  before  the  tops  of  the  tile  out- 
lets are  submerged. 

6.  Where  the  reservoir  is  small  the  pump  must  be  started  at 
frequent  intervals.  An  automatic  starter  takes  the  place  of 
a constant  attendant.  Electricity  lends  itself  to  automatic 
control  better  than  gasoline,  steam  or  wind. 

7.  A simple  auger  pump  that  permits  sticks  and  debris  to  pass 
through  it  without  clogging  or  binding  is  most  satisfactory. 

8.  An  emergency  pump  for  use  in  case  of  accident  or  unusual 
floods  should  be  kept  ready  for  action. 

9.  About  1/2  kilowatt-hour  of  power  is  the  average  used  per 
acre  in  24  hours  to  lift  the  water  7 feet.  The  minimum  was 
Yq  kilowatt  hours  per  acre  per  day. 

10.  The  dry  weather  seepage  amounts  to  about  .1  inch  in  24 
hours.  The  maximum  requirement  has  been  about  .8  inches 
in  24  hours  from  the  entire  area. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  Univbrsitt 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
P.  B.  Morrison,  Asst  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


X.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 
K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 
sion Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
P.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 
E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 
P.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 
ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 
E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 

Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 
B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 
Agr.  Journalism 
R.  S.  Hulcb,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 
P.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 


P.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 
A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  SwENEHART,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan.  Plant  Pathology 
H.  P.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 

C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Carver,  Genetics 
A.  L.  DuRant,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  W.  Heal,  Animal  Husbandry 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Henry  Keller,  Agr.  Economics 

C.  D.  Samuels,  Soils 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Ste-\"ens,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Stevens,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  N.  Stroman,  Genetics 
J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7W75RE  C002 

RESEARCH  BULLETIN  MADISON 
39-50  1916-21 


3 0112  019935987 


